UCSB    LIBRARY 


• 


First  Manuscript  edition  of  75  numbered  copies. 
This  copy  is  No. 


HANDBOOK 


OF 


WEST   COAST   COUNTRIES 

PANAMA    AND   THE    CANAL,    AND    THE 

WEST   INDIES 


C.    GRAND    PIERRE 

AUTHOR  OF  "We  MAY  LEARN  FROM  LATIN  AMERICANS,"  ETC, 


H.  H.  GALLISON,  PUBLISHER 
NEW     YORK 

10     HANOVER    SQUARE 

V 

Printed  as  manuscript,  while  at  sea,  on  board  the 
Liner  Santa  Elisa,  Grace  Line. 


Copyrighted  1921 
by  C.  Grand  Pierre  and  H.  H.  Gallison, 


PREIFACE: 


There  is  no  need  of  apoligizing  for  the  writing  and 
publishing  of  this  book.  The  interest  in  Latin  American 
and  West  Indian  countries  is  growing,  but  no  com- 
prehensive, complete  book  of  general  information  about 
them  has,  as  yet,  been  written  in  a  popular  way  and 
published. 

This  seems  to  justify  giving  to  this  volume  a  little 
place  under  the  sun,  and  space  in  private  and  public 
libraries. 

If  there  is  need  of  apoligizing,  it  is  because  of  this: 

The  manuscript  has  been  written  very  hurriedly 
during  a  busy  trip  in  almost  record  time.  It  has  been 
printed  under  difficult  conditions  on  board  of  a  steam- 
ship (the  "Santa  Elisa,"  Grace  Line),  while  at  sea. 

Hence  many  imperfections  of  grammar,  rhetoric, 
typography,  etc., — unavoidable  under  the  circum- 
stances. 

C.  GRAND  PIERRE. 
242  W.  49th  Street,  New  York.,  U.S.A. 


CHAPTER  I. 


SOUTHWARD  BOUND 

The  first  day  out  of  New  York,  on  our  way  to  Val- 
paraiso, is  usually  uneventful.  After  emerging  out 
of  the  Narrows — between  Fort  Hamilton  and  Fort 
Hancock — we  successively  leave  Staten  Island,  Coney 
Island  and  Sandy  Hook  behind,  dropping  the  pilot 
near  Scotland  Lightship.  Then,  we  sail  with  the  Jersey 
coast  for  a  little  over  two  hours  and,  well  before  night- 
fall, we  enter  our  career  as  deep  water  sailors. 

The  first  interesting  thing  we  meet  along  our  course 
is  the 

GULF  STREAM 

the  most  voluminous  and  the  most  rapid  of  all  sea 
currents.  It  is  merely  the  continuation  of  other 
currents  and  a  link  in  a  great  circular  movement  of 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic. 

On  reaching  the  South  American  coast,  the  South 
Equatorial  Current  coming  from  the  coast  of  Africa, 

7 


splits  at  Cape  St.  Roque  (the  eastern-most  point  of 
the  South  American  Continent).  One  branch,  the 
Brazil  Current,  is  deflected  southwards  while  the 
other  proceeds  northwards  and  mixes  with  the  North 
Equatorial  Current.  The  two  drifts,  blocked  by  the 
"V"-shape  of  the  coast,  enter  the  Caribbean,  raising 
the  surface  by  several  feet,  then  flow  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  through  the  Yucatan  Chainel,  the  pressure 
being  relieved  through  the  Straits  of  Florida. 

From  its  exit  out  of  the  Florida  Straits,  the  current 
is  named  Gulf  Stream.  There,  it  is  joined,  and  it  soon 
becomes  undistinguishalble  from  a  large  body  of  water 
coming  from  the  Region  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  fol- 
lowing the  same  course.  The  streams  run  north  along 
the  coast  of  the  United  States,  (saparated  from  it  by 
a  narrow  strip  of  cold  water  known  as  the  "Cold  Wall") 
to  a  point  east  of  the  Grand  Banks  of  Newfoundland. 

Near  the  Grand  Banks,  the  Labrador  Current  is 
met  and,  under  the  influence  of  the  prevailing  westerly 
winds,  a  drift  current  is  set  up  misnamed  the  Gulf 
Stream  Drift.  On  reaching  the  European  coast,  this 
drift  splits,  one  branch  running  northwards,  the  other 
southwards,  forming  the  Canaries  Current  which  mixes 
with  the  Equatorial  Current,  thus  completing  the 
Cycle. 

In  the  Florida  Straits,  the  Stream's  velocity  often 
exceeds  7  knots.  Along  the  coast,  its  average  velocity 
ranges  between  4  and  5  knots.  Its  temperature  ranges 
between  75  and  82  degrees.  F 


GULF  WEED 

As  soon  as  we  reach  the  Gulf  Stream,  we  begin  to 
meet  patches  of  Gulf  or  Sargasso  Weed.  It  has  long 
been  believed  that  these  aglse  come  from  the  Sea  of 
Sargasso,  a  large  expanse  of  the  Atlantic  located 
roughly  between  20  and  30  degrees  N.  and  45  and  65W. 
This  "sea"  is  in  part  covered  with  such  de.ise  masses 
of  veei  that,  legends  say,  that  navigation  there  is 
cangerous.  Another  legend  is  that  the  weed  is  the 
faaeral  wreath  of  the  lost  Atlantis,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  a  powerful  kingdom  9000  years  before 
Solomon's  time  and  is  supposed  to  now  lay  below  the 
surface  of  the  Sargasso  Sea.  It  has  now  been  deter- 
mined that  the  Gulf  weed  originates  in  the  Caribbean 
and  the  Gulf  and  that  currents  and  win  is  cause  its 
accumulation  in  the  Sargasso  Sea. 


PYHSIGAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  SEA 

We  left  New  York  at  what  is  conventionally  called 
sea  level,  arid  most  of  us  believe  that — barring  waves 
and  tides — our  voyage  will  be  on  a  plane  surface.  The 
truth  is  that  certain  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are 
often  more  than  20  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Atlantic 
along  our  course,  and  the  Caribbean  slightly  higher. 
It  is  not  a  very  big  climb,  but  it  is  a  climb  nevertheless. 

Were  we  to  cross  the  Atlantic  along  what  is  known 
as  the  southern  lane,  we  would  have  to  go  down  a  rea 

9 


hollow  at  least  200  feet  below  sea  level  along  the  North 
American  coast. 

The  differences  of  level  of  the  Oceans  are  due  to 
various  causes,  two  or  more  of  them  often  concurring. 
There  is  first  the  gravitative  attraction  of  the  lands, 
which  have  an  average  density  nearly  three  times 
that  of  water,  and  exert  a  considerable  attraction 
upon  sea  water,  causing  what  is  known  as  the  "Con- 
tinental wave."  Some  measurements  have  indi- 
cated depressions  due  to  that  cause  in  the  Atlantic  as 
much  as  650  feet  below  coast  levels,  but  that  has  been 
disputed.  However,  it  is  admitted  that  sea  level 
along  the  North  American  coast  is  200  or  more  feet 
above  certain  areas  in  the  Atlantic. 

Currents  also  cause  considerable  differences  in  the 
level  of  the  sea.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  closed 
seas  as  the  Caribbean  and  the  Gulf,  through  the  Equa- 
torial current. 

Evaporation  is  still  another  factor.  Actual,  re- 
peated measurements  in  the  Mediterranean  indicate 
differences  of  level  of  25  feet  and  more,  apparently 
solely  due  to  that  cause. 

Barometric  variations  have  been  found  to  affect  the 
level  of  the  Baltic  and,  presumably,  have  similar  effect 
on  other  seas.  In  the  Baltic  each  milimetre  drop  in 
the  barometer  has  been  found  to  cause  a  raise  of  14 
milimetres. 

Winds  also  cause  considerable  differences  of  level, 
especially  in  estuaries,  such  as  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

10 


There  are  also  differences  of  level  due  to  tidal  phe- 
nomena, which  present  complicated  features  differing 
with  localities. 

Currents  are  due — at  least  partly — to  causes  simi- 
lar to  atmospheric  circulation,  mainly  the  unequal 
heating  of  the  sea  surface  by  the  sun  as  well  as  the 
rotation  of  the  earth.  Tradewinds  blow  with  great 
regularity  towards  the  heat  equator;  they  are  mostly 
northeast  winds  in  the  northern,  and  southeast  winds 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  because  of  deflection  by 
the  spinning  of  the  earth.  Sea  currents  are  deflected 
in  a  similiar  manner;  they  tend  to  swing  towards  the 
right  in  the  northern  and  toward  the  left  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  unless  otherwise  influenced  by  the  con- 
figuration of  the  coasts  and  other  causes. 

TIDES 

The  theory  of  tides  is  too  complicated  and  too  long 
to  explain  to  find  a  place  in  these  pages.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  tide  predictions  are  made  by  reference  to  the 
time  of  the  moon's  transit  across  the  meridian,  cor- 
rected by  the  sun's  influence  and  local  observations. 

The  Establishment  of  the  Port  is  the  average 
interval  which  elapses  between  high  tides.  The  es- 
tablishment is  the  hour  of  high  water  at  full  change. 
Spring  rise  is  the  average  height  between  high  and 
low  water  at  spring  tide  (the  average  highest  tide). 
Neaps  has  a  similar  meaning  as  concerns  low  water 

11 


CHEMICAL  AND   BIOLOGICAL   CHARACTER- 
ISTICS OF  THE  SEA 

Salinity  differs  much,  both  horizontally  and  ver- 
tically. On  or  near  the  surface,  these  differences  are 
due  mainly  to  varying  degrees  of  evaporation.  Vertical 
differences  are  not  yet  satisfactorily  explained. 

Viscosity  is  naturally  influenced  by  both  salinity 
and  temperature. 

Transparency  differs  still  more  with  locality.  In 
waters  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  the  most  remarkable 
instances  of  extreme  transparency  are  in  the  Bahamas, 
in  the  Caicos  and  Turks  Island  waters,  and  on  the 
south  coast  of  Jamaica,  where  the  sunken  remains  of 
the  former  City  of  Port  Royal,  60  feet  below  the  sur- 
face, are  often  plainly  seen. 

In  color,  differences  are  also  remarkable.  It  has 
often  been  doubted  that  the  color  of  the  water  is  ac- 
tually blue,  but  this  has  been  affirmatively  ascer- 
tained by  various  experiments,  by  comparison  with 
colorless  liquids.  Whenever  the  ocean  water  is  not  blue, 
it  is  due  to  local  disturbances,  reflection,  or  biological 
factors.  Yet,  great  differences  in  blueness  are  not 
quite  accounted  for.  For  instance,  along  our  course 
in  the  Gulf  and  the  Caribbean,  the  water  appears  at 
times  almost  ridiculously  blue,  while  elsewhere  it  is 
dark  grey-green. 

Life  conditions  in  the  sea  vary  even  more  than 
physical  features,  and,  naturally,  they  are  influenced 

12 


by  temperature  and  local  chemical  composition  of  the 
water.  Low  salinity,  for  instance,  especially  where 
temperature  is  as  uniformly  low  as  along  the  west 
South  American  coast,  result  in  favorable  life  condi- 
tions for  a  great  variety  and  quantity  of  micro  organism. 

This  low  salinity  and  temperature  are  favorable  to 
the  absorption  by  the  water  and  retention  of  atmos- 
pheric gases  and  of  those  produced  by  the  pylosiogical 
activities  of  marine  plants  and  animals.  Low  salinity 
also  makes  possible  the  solution  of  suspension  of  in- 
creased proportions  of  silica  which,  with  nitrogen 
compounds  and  phosphoric  acids,  are  elements  upon 
which  all  sea  life  is  primarily  dependent. 

The  original  source  of  all  food  for  higher  sea  life  is 
the  microscopic  plant  life  which  covers  the  upper  layer 
of  the  Ocean  at  the  average  rate  of  12,000  per  quart  of 
water.  These  become  the  food  of  lower  animal  life 
and  certain  fishes  which  in  turn  are  devoured  by  higher 
animals  and  fishes.  The  relative  scarcity  of  plant  and 
animal  life  in  tropical  waters,  compared  with  waters 
of  temperate  zones  is  due  to  less  favorable  conditions 
of  life  for  micro  organism. 

THE  WINDS 

Winds  have  not  always  swept  the  surface  of  the 
Oceans;  in  olden  times,  mariners  knew  only  oars  to 
move  their  ships.  It  was  very  hard  work,  and  the 
greatest  reward  which  a  good  fairy  could  give  to 

13 


fishermen  who  had  given  her  hospitality  was  to  tell 
their  captain  of  an  island  where  the  winds  were  held 
prisoners,  and  how  to  capture  and  use  them. 

The  captain  went,  and  loaded  the  four  winds — the 
breeze,  the  trade  winds,  the  gale  and  the  tempest — 
in  great  big  canvas  bags.  The  crew  was  forbidden  to 
touch  the  mysterious  cargo  until  arrived  home,  but 
their  curiosity  was  too  strong.  They  opened  the  top- 
most bag  which  contained  the  tempest,  which,  when 
set  loose,  delivered  the  other  winds.  Ever  since,  we 
have  had  four  kinds  of  winds  upon  earth. 

Winds  are  more  or  less  arbitrarily  classified  and 
named  according  to  their  velocity  as  estimated  or 
measured  by  an  instrument  called  anemometre. 

Breezes  are  classified  by  mariners  as  good,  fresh  and 
stiff,  the  latter  of  maximum  40  miles  velocity. 

Half  a  Gale  is  equivalent  or  a  little  stronger  than  a 
stiff  breeze;  a  strong  gale  is  akin  to  a  storm,  and  be- 
tween the  two  are  several  kinds  of  gales  usually  desig- 
nated by  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  The  word  gale  is 
rarely  used  without  qualification. 

Storm  winds  on  the  waters  of  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere, south  of  the  U.  S.  A.,  are  usually  called  hurri- 
canes. These  storms  are  exceedingly  rare  along  the 
west  coast  north  of  40  degrees  latitude  south. 

Many  people  unfamiliar  with  the  Gulf  and  the  Carib- 
bean fear  West  Indian  hurricanes,  but  without  reason. 
Taking  the  vast  area  of  these  seas  into  consideration, 
West  Indian  hurricanes  are  very  much  less  frequent 

14 


and  many  times  less  destructive  than  North  American 
tornadoes. 

Records  of  the  last  155  years  show  that  they  average 
less  than  one  a  year  in  the  entire  West  Indies,  and  that 
they  are  restricted  to  comparatively  small  areas  and 
follow  a  well  defined  path.  Their  approach  is  always 
heralded — sometimes  2  to  3  days  in  advance — by 
curious,  sudden  variations  of  the  barometer.  Fewer 
ships  «re  sunk  because  of  hurricanes  than  other  causes. 
By  far  the  greatest  number  of  hurricanes  happen 
during  July,  August  and  September,  and  an  old  West 
Indian  adage  says: 

June,  too  soon; 

July,  stand  by; 

August,  you  must; 

September,  remember; 

October,  all  over. 

Very  rare  are  the  so-called  northers  on  the  western 
Caribbean. 

SEASICKNESS 

Sea  Sickness  is  often  unnecessarily  feared  by  "first 
trippers,"  and  by  those  who  have  been  affected  by  it 
during  previous  sea  voyages.  Indeed,  it  is  now  gener- 
ally admitted  that  an  anxious  mental  attitude  acts 
the  opposite  of  a  prophylactic. 

The  following  explanation  is  usually  given  as  the 
most  immediate  cause  of  the  ill  feeling  given  that 
name. 

15 


The  rolling  and  heaving  of  the  vessel  disturbs  the 
feeling  of  a  correct  relation  of  the  body  to  the  sur- 
rounding objects.  The  sense  of  security  decreases  and 
even  ceases.  The  nervous  system,  subjected  to  a 
succession  of  shocks  fails  in  its  function  to  reestablish 
the  disturbed  equilibrium.  The  whole  organism  is 
weakened  and  unable  to  offset  the  effects  of  periodical 
displacement  of  the  organs  during  movements  of  the 
ship — especially  the  stomach— with  the  well  known 
results. 

The  primary  causes  of  sea  sickness  are  mental. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  cases  of  people  becoming  sea  sick 
long  before  the  vessel  begins  to  move  are  not  unfrequent. 

No  specific  has  been  found  which  really  prevents 
or  cures  seasickness.  The  best  anyone  can  do  is  to 
go  aboard  in  quite  a  matter  of  fact  way,  as  if  boarding 
a  train.  It  is  best  not  to  diet,  but  to  live  as  nearly 
as  possible  as  one  would  on  shore,  and  rest  a  little  more. 

SOME  "SEA"  TERMS 

Officially,  the  directions  on  vessels  of  the  U.  S. 
Navy  are  called  front,  rear,  left,  right.  However,  to 
regular  seafaring  men — even  in  the  Navy  outside  of 
official  documents — the  old  oak  and  hemp  day's 
terms:  fore,  aft,  port  (formerly  larboard)  and  star- 
board, will  continue  to  be  right. 

The  sides,  from  the  bows  to  the  stern,  form  the 
body  of  a  ship;  'tween  wind-and-water  is  the  water's 

16 


edge;  the  upper  outline  of  the  sides  is  the  sheer;  waste 
water  from  rain,  seas  shipped,  etc.,  runs  along  the 
waterways  into  scuppers  into  the  sea.  The  white 
painted  sign  on  the  sides,  a  circle,  some  lines  and  capital 
letters  is  the  Plimsol  M>-rk,  the  lines  and  letters  in- 
dicate the  depth  to  which  the  ship  may  be  loaded  in 
winter  (W.),  fresh  water  (F.  W.),  etc.,  according  to 
Lloyd's  survey.  The  railings  forward  are  just  rails, 
those  amidships  are  quarter  rails,  those  aft  are  taff- 
rails. 

It  is  only  since  the  advent  of  huge  floating  hotels 
that  some  seafaring  people  have  begun  to  use  the  words 
windows  and  doors.  Properly  speaking,  they  are 
hatches,  ports,  hatchways  and  port  holes.  Stair- 
ways are  ladders,  whatever  their  size,  but  two  ladders 
running  to  or  from  the  same  part  are  companions. 
The  main  companion  is  the  "stairway"  leading  from 
the  dining  room  to  the  music  room.  In  olden  days, 
the  main  companion  was  something  akin  to  a  sacred 
spot;  every  man  uncovered  himself  while  using  it, 
and  only  the  master  of  the  vessel  kept  his  cap  on. 
The  main  landing,  above  the  main  companion,  is  the 
companion  way;  the  ladder  let  down  the  sides  in 
ports  is  the  accommodation. 

There  are  no  floors  nor  ceilings  aboard,  but  decks 
and  deckheads  and  no  partitions,  but  bulkheads, 
no  skylights,  but  deadlights.  The  kitchen  is  the 
galley;  the  crew's  kitchen,  when  separate  from  that  for 
passenger  service,  is  the  ship's  galley;  the  deckhand's 

17 


quarters  are  the  foes' 1.,  the  steward's  quarters  the 
glory' ole.  To  go  to  bed  is  invariably  turn  in,  to 
start  work  is  to  turn  to. 

Whatever  his  age,  the  captain  is  always  the  only 
old  man  aboard;  there  is  o.ity  one  chief,  the  chief 
engineer,  and  orly  one  boss,  the  chief  steward.  Bones 
was  formerly  the  cozy  name  given  to  the  ship's  surgeon, 
but  now  he  is  more  familiarly  known  as  pills;  the  elec- 
trician is  sparks  and  the  name  is  given  to  the  wireless 
operator;  the  chef  is  the  doctor,  the  carpanter  is  chips; 
the  deck  department's  store  keeper  is  lamps,  the  stew- 
ard's Departments  storekeeper  just  stores.  Seaman 
designates  any  member  of  the  crew  and  the  word  is 
never  used  in  the  sense  of  seafaring  man.  On  the  other 
hand,  sailor  designates  both  a  member  of  the  deck 
department  and  seafaring  rnan  at  laige. 

A  ship  sits  in  the  water  when  under  way,  but  rides 
at  anchor,  if  she  stands  the  weather  well,  she  is  a  good 
sea  boat,  otherwise  a  crank,  a  tub,  or  an  old  wagon. 
To  get  under  way  is  to  gather  speed;  to  sail  along  a 
coast  is  to  sail  with  the  wind;  to  stop  is  to  heave  to; 
the  weather  side  is  whence  the  wind  comes,  the  lee 
side  is  the  sheltered  side. 

A  ship,  correctly  speaking,  is  exclusively  a  full 
rigged  vessel,  namely,  with  three  or  more  square 
rigged  masts ;  a  bark  has  fore  and  main  masts  square , 
and  mizzer.  mast  fore-and-aft  rigged.  A  barken- 
tine  has  the  foremast  fore-and-aft,  the  others  square. 
A  brig  has  two  square  masts,  a  brigantine  one  square 

18 


and  one  fore-and-aft  mast.  A  schooner  has  two  or 
more  masts  fore-and-aft  rigged,  a  schooner  without 
top  sails  is  said  to  be  baldheaded.  Smaller  sailers 
are  sloops  and  goelets. 

Before  the  commerciaHzv.tio.a  of  the  steamship,  the 
U.  S.  created  still  a  different  type  of  sailing  vessel,  the 
clipper  and  among  these  the  Baltimore  clippers 
were  the  most  famous.  Until  beaten  by  the  Lusi- 
tania,  one  of  these  held  the  transatlantic  record.  They 
were  vessels  designed  for  speed,  along  the  lines  of  yachts, 
with  three  or  four  square  rigged  masts  and  sometimes 
small  auxiliary  fore-and-aft,  either  fore  or  aft,  or  both. 

The  division  of  the  masts  are:  mast,  top  mast, 
royal,  top  gallant,  and  sky  scraper.  Above  the 
latters,  clippers  had,  sometimes,  moon  sails. 

The  sails  are  canvass,  the  ropes  with  which  sails 
are  handled  are  halyards,  the  ropes  at  the  bottom  of 
sails  are  sheets;  the  ladders  leading  up  masts  are 
shrouds,  the  rungs  of  the  shrouds  are  ratlines.  Old 
sailors  hardly  knew  the  word  rope,  but  distinguished 
hawsers  and  cables,  according  to  method  of  manu- 
facture. Smaller  ropes  are  lines,  heaving  lines, 
slings,  etc. 

The  red  and  the  green  light  on  port  and  starboard, 
respectively,  are  the  running  lights.  A  white  light, 
exhibited  when  the  vessel  has  hove  to,  15  degrees 
above  foremast  light,  is  the  anchor  light  ;  two  or 
more  lights  above  one  another  on  fore  mast  indicate 
that  vessel  is  towing  one  or  more  barges. 

19 


Navigation  is  the  art  of  working  out  a  course  and 
determining  the  location  of  a  ship.  It  may  be  at- 
tained by  the  study  of  books,  even  before  setting  foot 
on  a  vessel.  Seamanship  is  the  art  of  managing  a 
vessel  in  all  weathers  and  under  all  conditions.  Evi- 
dently, it  can  be  attained  only  by  long  practice.  Pilot- 
age is  the  art  of  conducting  a  ship  along  coasts  and  in 
inland  waters;  it  requires  both  seamanship  and  know- 
ledge of  geography. 

Light  Houses,  buoys,  etc.,  are  aids  to  navigation. 
Signs  and  signals  along  shore,  especially  in  inland 
waters  and  estuaries,  are  known  as  balissage.  The 
rules  of  the  road  are  the  laws  governing  the  move- 
ments of  vessels  when  near  other  vessels.  The  fair- 
way is  equivalent  to  right  of  way  on  land. 


20 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  BAHAMAS 

The  third  day  out  of  New  York,  we  approach  the 
Bahamas,  the  most  extensive  archipelago  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  They  are  an  800 -miles  long 
string  of  229  islands,  661  "cays"  and  2,387  rocks, 
extending  from  the  southern  coast  of  Florida,  25  miles 
off  shore,  to  near  the  coast  of  the  Dominican  Republic. 

For  the  last  half  a  century,  the  southern  group  of 
the  Bahamas,  known  as  the  Turks  and  Caicos  Islands 
have  been  politically  separated  from  the  Bahamas, 
and  they  now  depend  from  Jamaica,  while  the  other 
islands  are  administered  from  Nassau — the  famous 
winter  resort — on  the  island  of  New  Providence. 
The  Bahamas  are  divided  into  administrative  groups, 
with  a  local  administrator  representing  the  Govern- 
ment. 

The  total  area  of  the  Bahamas  is  5,540  square  miles 
and  the  total  population  is  60,000.  In  general,  the 
Bahama  Islands  are  long  and  narrow,  and  present  a 
flat  appearance.  Many  of  them  rise  barely  above 
water  and  are  hardly  more  than  sand  banks  or  rocky 

21 


islets.     Only  one  of  them,  New  Providence,  is  really 
very  fertile. 

Their  main  exports  are  sisal,  sponges  (mainly  handled 
through  the  Sponge  Exchange  in  Nassau),  salt,  turtle 
shells,  and  small  quantities  of  pineapples,  and  log 
and  fustic  wood. 

Some  years  ago,  the  Bahamas  pineapples  were  famous 
and  higher  prices  were  obtained  for  them  than  even 
for  Porto  Rico  fruit.  However,  the  American  customs 
tariff,  preferential  duties  in  favor  of  Hawaii,  and  lack 
of  cold  storage  facilities  destroyed  the  industry.  An 
American  company  operates  a  pineapple  canning  plant 
near  Nassau,  but  its  products  are  exported  to  the 
British  Isles. 

The  only  one  of  the  Bahamas  which  is  well  timbered 
is  Abaco,  where  an  American  Company  exploits  large 
pine  forests  and  have  established  a  modern  plant  and 
founded  a  town  called  Wilson  City.  About  80,000 
feet  of  pine  board  are  sawed  daily.  The  company 
operates  a  15-miles  long  railway,  the  only  one  in  the 
Bahamas,  and  employs  some  500  people. 

From  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  trade  of 
the  Bahamas  is  with  the  United  States  and  United 
States  currency  circulating  as  well  as  English  coin  and 
notes  and  Canadian  five-dollar  bills. 

Watling's. — Unless  delayed  by  weather  or  other 
causes,  we  pass  Watling's  Island  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  afternoon  of  the  third  day  out  of  New  York. 

22 


PERHAPS  NOT  COLUMBUS'  LANDFALL 

Mariners'  charts  and  most  maps  call  it  "San  Salvador 
or  Watling's  Island,"  and  indicate  it  as  the  first  land- 
fall of  Columbus,  Oct.  12,  1492,  during  his  first  voyage. 
Much  printer's  ink  has  hsen  employed  in  endeavors  to 
prove  or  disprove  this  supposition.  Many  writers  are  of 
the  opinion  that  one  of  the  Caicos  and  Turk's  Islands, 
north  of  Santo  Domingo  was  the  spot,  while  another 
current  of  opinion  is  in  favor  of  Columbus  Point,  at 
the  southeast  end  of  what  the  charts  call  Cat  Island. 

The  administration  of  the  Bahamas  seems  to  have 
sided  with  the  latter  opinion,  as  all  official  documents 
of  the  Colony  call  San  Salvador  Island  what  the  charts 
and  the  maps  call  Cat  Island. 

Watling's  Island  is  about  12  miles  long  and  from 
5  to  7  miles  wide,  with  slightly  indented  shores.  Its 
interior  is  largely  cut  up  with  salt  water  lagoons,  separ- 
ated by  low  hills.  Its  area  is  60  square  miles  and  its 
population  (1911  census)  617.  The  main  industry  of 
the  island  is  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  including  breed- 
ing stock  famous  in  the  Bahamas. 

Watling's  Light  erected  on  the  highest  point, 
Dixon  Hill,  towards  the  northeast,  is  visible  19  miles, 
showing  two  short  flashes,  followed  by  eclipse,  every 
30  seconds.  It  is  exhibited  from  a  stone  tower  165  feet 
above  the  water. 

Immediately  north  of  Watling  are  Green  Cay  and 
White  Cay,  recognized  by  their  appearance.  South 

23 


of  Watling's  are  the  Hinchbroke  Rocks,  near  which 
is  the  wreck  of  a  sailing  vessel.  Another  wreck  is 
visible  near  the  light  house. 

San  Salvador  Island,  or  Cat  Island,  just  named,  is 
left  out  of  sight  to  the  west.  It  is  somewhat  in  the 
shape  of  a  42-miles  long  leg  with  15-miles  long  foot 
and  3  miles  average  width,  an  area  of  160  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  5,072.  It  is  the  loftiest  of  the 
Bahamas,  with  a  maximum  elevation  of  nearly  400 
feet.  There  is  no  sponge  fishing  in  these  waters,  but, 
as  a  whole,  this  island  is  the  most  fertile  of  the  Bahamas, 
except  New  Providence. 

A  few  miles  west  of  the  latter,  lies  the  islet  of  Little 
San  Salvador. 

We  also  leave  out  of  sight,  west  of  us,  the  islet  of 
Conception,  on  which  Columbus  is  supposed  to  have 
remained  several  days  to  pray.  A  liltle  to  the  south  is 
/?um  Cay,  with  an  area  of  29  square  miles  and  a  popu- 
lation of  430,  and  Long  Island  (not  to  be  confounded 
with  Long  Cay),  57  miles  long,  3  miles  at  its  widest 
an  area  of  130  square  miles,  and  4,160  inhabitants. 

From  6  to  7  hours  after  passing  Watling's  light,  we 
should  come  to  the  height  of  Bird  Rock,  a  rocky  islet, 
little  more  than  one  square  mile  in  area,  located  about 
one  mile  north  of  Crooked  Island,  but  when  approached 
from  the  north,  appearing  as  if  part  of  the  latter.  Its 
light,  exhibited  from  a  conical  stone  tower  faced  with 
blue  brick,  easily  visible  from  the  ship  when  passed 

24 


by  daylight,  shows,  120  feet  above  water,  for  15  seconds 
every  90  seconds. 

ENTERING  THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO 

We  have  now  entered  the  Crooked  Island  Passage, 
one  of  the  six  channels  available  to  large  vessels  pass- 
ing from  the  open  Atlantic  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Immediately  south  of  Bird  Rock,  we  have  Crooked 
Island,  which  is  not  nearly  as  crooked  as  Acklin,  its 
neighbor.  It  is  irregular  in  shape,  about  10  miles  long 
and  6  miles  at  its  widest,  with  an  area  of  76  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  1,441.  It  is  generally  low 
and  wooded,  with  a  range  of  hills,  pretentiously  called 
the  Blue  Mountains,  gradually  rising  towards  its  cen- 
ter, reaching  a  maximum  altitude  of  200  feet,  and  an 
isolated  elevation  of  about  the  same  height  towards  the 
south  end,  called  Mount  Pisgah.  By  clear  weather, 
and  with  a  good  glass,  we  may  distinguish  some  of 
the  houses  of  the  chief  town,  Portland  Harbor,  near 
the  northern  end  of  the  island. 

OF  PIRATICAL  FAME 

After  crossing  an  expanse  of  open  sea  some  12  miles 
wide,  we  see  parts  of  the.  west  shore  of  Long  Cay 
(not  to  be  confounded  with  Long  Island),  better  known 
as  Fortune  Island.  It  is  about  10  miles  long,  vary- 

25 


ing  in  width  from  1-4  miles  to  nearly  three  miles.  It  is 
nearly  level,  raising  gradually  to  110  feet  altitude,  at 
Fortune  Hill,  near  the  south  end.  Its  only  settlement, 
Albert,  is  the  seat  of  the  administration  of  the  Crooked 
Island  group  of  islands  and  the  principal  shipping 
point  for  a  number  of  islands  around.  Before  the 
War,  passenger  liners  of  the  Atlas  line,  called  there 
fortnightly,  and  during  the  building  of  the  canal, 
many  hundreds  of  laborers  were  shipped  from  there. 
Albert  is  a  neat  little  town,  with  two  or  three  buildings 
which  may  be  called  comparatively  pretentious. 

From  the  southern  end  of  Fortune  Island,  the  "bank" 
curves  southeastward,  and  then  in  a  straight,  southerly 
direction,  forming  an  11 -miles  long  string  of  islets, 
the  Fish  Cays,  some  of  which  are  visible  from  the  deck. 

Our  next  landmark  is  Salina  Point,  the  eastern 
end  of  the  southern  part  of  Acklin  Island.  Acklin  is 
48  miles  long  and  7  miles  at  its  widest,  but  for  most  of 
its  length  it  is  only  from  one  to  three  miles  wide.  Its 
area  is  only  120  square  miles  and  its  population  173 2. 
From  its  shape,  it  would  well  deserve  the  name  Crooked 
Island  given  to  one  of  its  neighbors.  Wells,  its  chief 
town,  trades  mainly  with  Albert. 

We  leave  to  our  west  the  Mira  POT  Vos,  a  cluster  of 
islets,  some  of  which  are  visible  from  the  ship  with  a 
good  glass. 

Soon  after  Salina  Point,  we  pass  Castle  Island,  a 
mere  rocky  islet.  From  a  conical  tower  with  three 

26 


bands  of  red  brick  is  exhibited,  114  feet  above  water 
the  only  fixed  light  of  the  three  first  orders  in  the 
Bahamas.  It  is  visible  17  miles. 

East  of  our  course,  we  leave,  some  25  miles  away, 
Great  Inagua,  the  third  largest  of  the  Bahamas, 
with  an  area  of  560  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
only  1,343. 


27 


CHAPTER  III 


CUBA 

Cape  May  si,  which  we  usually  reach  during  the 
forenoon  of  the  fourth  day  out  of  New  York,  is  the 
eastermost  end  of  Cuba.  When  seen  from  the  north, 
the  range  of  hills  south  of  the  Cape  appear  as  if  rising 
in  series  of  steps;  a  little  further  south,  we  may  observe 
curious  folds  in  the  formation  of  the  mountain  sides 
In  the  distance,  we  see  the  Cobre  (copper)  mountains, 
so  named  because  of  their  appearance  at  certain  times 
of  the  year.  Among  them  is  a  remarkable  land- 
mark, the  flat  topped  Yunque  (anvil)  of  Baracoa. 

The  coast  about  the  cape  is  fringed  with  a  white 
sandy  beach,  behind  which  is  a  belt  of  scrubby  wood. 
The  hillsides  are  rocky  and  barren,  but  the  land  on  the 
plateau  above  is  among  the  most  fertile  of  Cuba.  The 
region  is  not  only  agriculturally  rich,  but,  during  the 
war,  was  a  great  producer  of  manganese  ore. 

The  nearest  port  on  the  north  coast  is  Baracoa, 
a  sugar  and  banana  port.  The  city  was  founded  by 
Diego  Columbus  in  1514. 

On  the  south  coast,  we  may  distinguish  three  dis- 

28 


tinct  ranges  of  hills.  Behind  the  second  is  Guanta- 
namo,  the  U.  S.  Naval  Base,  and  behind  the  third 
lies  Santiago. 

Cape  Maysi  Light  is  exhibited  from  a  white  cir- 
cular tower,  located  on  Point  Hombra,  21-2  miles 
from  the  extremity  of  the  Cape;  it  shows  three  short 
flashes,  followed  by  a  longer  eclipse,  within  20  seconds. 
Not  far  from  the  light  house,  we  may  observe  the  hull 
of  a  tanker  aground,  appearing  more  as  if  riding  at 
anchor  near  the  beach. 

45  miles  east  of  Cape  Maysi  is  Mole  St.  Nicholas, 
Haiti,  which  people  of  that  country  like  to  call  the  Gib- 
raltar of  the  West  Indies.  There  are  no  fortifications 
there,  nor  need  of  any,  but  the  writer  has  been  told 
very  seriously  by  educated  Haitians,  that  if  Haiti 
had  the  money,  it  would  beat  the  record  in  erecting 
there  fortifications  which  would  much  surpass  the 
"Rock." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  title  "Gibraltar  of  the  West 
Indies"  was  given  a  century  ago  to  Brimstone  Hill, 
on  the  island  of  St.  Kitts,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
where  one  of  the  struggles  took  place  which  gave 
Great  Britain  the  naval  supremacy  it  has  enjoyed 
since.  But,  while  the  strategic  possibilities  of  Mole 
St.  Nicholas  were  sorely  neglected,  there  are,  not  many 
miles  away,  along  the  north  coast  of  Haiti,  the  ruins  of 
La  Ferriere,  probably,  with  the  exception  of  the  ruins 
of  Inca  fortresses  in  Peru,  the  remains  of  the  most 
gigantic  fortress  on  earth.  La  Ferriere  was  built  by 

29 


"Emperor"  Christopher  of  Haiti,  a  native  and  runaway 
slave  from  the  island  of  St.  Christopher,  who,  ap- 
parently, aimed  to  imitate  and  surpass  what  his  former 
English  masters  had  done  on  Brimstone  Hill,  on  his 
native  island.  Below  La  Ferriere  are  the  ruins  of  what 
must  have  been  wonderful  palaces  and  gardens  of 
"King"  Milot,  another  of  the  many  short  lived  rulers  of 
the  Black  Country. 

Between  Cape  Maysi  and  Mole  St.  Nicholas,  the 
straits  are  called  and  form  the  Windward  Passage, 
one  of  the  four  channels  available  to  large  vessels  pass- 
ing from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  into  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
The  other  passages  are:  The  Yucatan  Passage  (be- 
tween Mexico  and  Cuba),  The  Mona  Passage  (between 
the  island  of  San  Domingo  and  Cuba),  and  the  Virgin 
Passage  (between  Porto  Rico  and  St.  Thomas). 

Our  next  landfall  will  be  Navassa,  which  we  usually 
pass  about  9  hours  after  Cape  Maysi. 

THE  PEARL  OF  THE  ANTILLES 

Cuba  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage, 
on  October  28,  1492.  He  landed  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
place  where  the  town  of  Nuevitas  now  stands  and  took 
possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  Spain.  From 
that  time  until  the  peace  of  Paris  was  concluded  in 
December,  1898,  the  progress  of  the  country  was  rela- 
tively slow  and  by  no  means  commensurate  with  its 
natural  richness  and  susceptibility  of  development. 

30 


Cuba  extends  in  a  direction  from  northwest  to  south- 
east— its  northwestern  extremity  being  Cape  San  An- 
tonio, in  west  longitude  84°  55',  and  its  southeastern 
extremity  Cape  Maisi,  in  longitude  74°  12'.  There  is 
a  distance  of  740  statute  miles  between  these  capes,  and 
Maisi  is  250  miles  farther  south  than  San  Antonio. 
The  island  is  only  120  miles  wide  at  its  broadest  part, 
and  it  averages  from  60  to  100  miles.  Its  total  area 
is  44,164  square  miles,  or  114,385  square  kilometers, 
being  thus  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Of  this  area  only  15  per  cent  is  in  cultivation. 

The  census  of  1913-14  gives  the  total  population  of 
Cuba  as  2,465,428.  The  average  yearly  increase  in 
the  population  is  70,000,  the  excess  of  births  over 
deaths  being  40,000  and  the  average  yearly  immigra- 
tion about  30,000.  Many  of  the  immigrants  are  a 
good  type  of  hard-working  folk  from  Spain,  who,  avail- 
ing themselves  of  the  opportunities  that  the  country 
affords,  soon  acquire  land  or  work  in  the  cities  as  ar- 
tisans, small  storekeepers,  and  in  other  commercial 
lines.  Of  late  there  has  been  considerable  immigra- 
tion from  the  neighboring  islands  of  Haiti,  Jamaica, 
Barbados,  and  others,  owing  to  the  necessity  for  farm 
labor.  These  newcomers  are  nearly  all  negroes. 

In  the  last  century  especially  its  growth  was  retarded 
by  revolts  against  the  constituted  authorities.  There 
w^re  uprisings  by  the  Cubans  in  1823,  1826>  1828,  1830, 
1848,  1850,  1851,  and  1855.  These  were  followed  by 
the  "Ten  Years'  War,"  which  continued  (mainly  in 

31 


guerrilla  fashion)  from  1868  to  1878.  Another  insur- 
rection was  started  in  1881.  The  cost  of  suppressing 
these  attempts  at  revolution  had  been  assessed  by  Spain 
against  the  colony,  and  the  total  was  $295,707,264,  or 
more  than  $185  per  capita.  The  cost  in  blood  and  de- 
struction of  property  was  incalculable.  Then  came 
the  final  revolt  of  1895,  the  declaration  of  war  by  the 
United  States,  April  19,  1898,  and  the  subsequent  terms 
of  peace  by  which  Cuba  was  given  freedom  December 
10,  1898.  The  United  States  administered  affairs  in 
Cuba  for  a  time,  carried  out  an  effective  sanitary  pro- 
gram in  Habana,  and  inaugurated  public  works  and 
similar  improvements.  Finally,  on  May  20,  1902,  an 
election  having  been  held  under  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment, the  island  was  turned  over  to  a  president  and 
congress  of  its  own  people.  Cuba  had  at  last  become  a 
nation  in  its  own  right  and  the  struggle  of  more  than 
80  years  was  over. 

The  lessons  of  sanitation  taught  by  the  Americans 
were  well  learned.  The  principles  were  put  in  force 
throughout  the  island,  and  with  yellow  fever  absolutely 
eradicated  the  progress  of  Cuba  since  1902  has  been 
rapid  and  in  many  respects  remarkable. 

HAITI  AND  SAN  DOMINGO 

The  island  which  we  pass  at  starboard  the  fourth  day 
out  of  New  York,  variously  called  Haiti  and  San 
Domingo,  is  the  second  in  size  of  the  Antilles,  its  area 
being  two  thirds  that  of  Cuba.  It  is  one  of  the  first 

32 


discoveries  of  Columbus  and  was  called  by  him 
Hispanola. 

The  mainland  of  the  island  contains  about  31,000 
square  miles,  and  of  this  area  the  eastern  two-thirds  is 
occupied  by  the  Dominican  Republic.  The  remainder, 
or  10,204  square  miles,  comprises  the  Republic  of  Haiti. 
In  addition  there  is  the  island  of  Gonaives,  38  miles 
long  and  5  or  6  miles  wide  in  places;  the  Isle  de  Tortue 
on  the  north,  which  is  22  miles  long  and  from  one-half 
to  4  and  5  miles  wide;  Vaches  Island  on  the  south, 
Grand  Caimite,  and  lesser  islets,  which,  altogether,  add 
several  hundred  square  miles  to  the  Haitian  territory 

The  population  of  the  Republic  Haiti  is  estimated 
at  two  million. 

Port  au  Prince,  the  capital,  situated  on  the  south- 
west side  of  the  Republic,  and  surrounded  by  a  sort 
of  horseshoe  of  mountains,  is  recognized  as  one  of  the 
hottest  ports  in  the  West  Indies.  It  gets  none  of  the 
trades,  and  until  the  sun  goes  down  it  receives  the 
ardent  rays.  There  is  little  air  movement,  and  in 
general,  the  humidity  is  high.  During  the  rainy 
season — that  is,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  mid- 
dle of  October — the  heat  averages  from  94°  to  96° 
every  day;  and  during  the  "dry"  season  from  October 
to  April,  the  temperature  ranges  from  84°  to  86°.  If 
the  dry  land  breeze  blows,  the  thermometer  goes  up 
to  90°  or  perhaps  a  few  degrees  higher.  The  nights, 
however,  are  at  times  from  10  to  15  degrees  cooler  than 
the  days. 

33 


The  people  of  Haiti  are  almost  entirely  pure-blooded 
negroes,  the  mulattoes,  who  form  about  10  per  cent 
of  the  population,  beirg,  it  is  believed,  a  diminishing 
class.  However,  the  persons  with  an  admixture  of 
white  blood,  by  reason  of  their  better  education  and 
opportunities,  constitute  the  more  progressive  element 
and  furnish  many  of  the  leaders  of  the  people.  The 
Haitian  are  generally  of  an  amiable  disposition,  polite 
and  courteous  to  a  degree,  considerate  of  others,  and 
possessed  of  good  manners;  this  is  especially  true  of 
those  who  have  had  the  advantage  of  instruction. 

The  main  exports  of  Haiti  are  coffee,  fustic  and  log 
wood,  guaiac,  castor  oil  and  hides  and  skins. 

With  the  expection  of  one  or  two  large  agricultural 
concerns  in  hands  of  foreign  capitalists,  agriculture 
in  Haiti  is  in  a  very  promitive  stage. 

The  country  is  a  protectorate  of  the  United  States, 
supposedly  self-governing,  but  U.  S.  Navy  officers  are 
in  charge  of  the  activities  of  most  departments  of  the 
Government. 

THE  DOMINICAN   REPUBLIC 

The  Dominican  Republic  occupies  the  eastern  two- 
thirds  of  the  island  of  Haiti  and  has  an  area  estimated 
at  from  18,000  to  19,325  square  miles. 

The  population  of  the  Republic  is  estimated  at 
800,000.  Unlike  Haitians,  they  are  very  largely  mulat- 
toes with  a  considerable  admixture  of  Carib  Indian 
blood.  The  language  of  the  people  is  Spanish. 

34 


Since  1898,  the  U.  S.  has  been  by  treaty  in  charge 
of  the  Finances  of  the  Republic,  but  in  1919,  by  order 
of  the  Wilson  administration,  American  army  officers 
took  entire  and  absolute  charge  of  the  government  of 
the  Republic.  However,  in  1921  a  considerable  amount 
of  municipal  autonomy  was  restored  to  Dominicans. 

The  agriculture  of  the  country  is  on  a  higher  level 
of  development  than  that  of  Haiti.  Sugar,  cotton  and 
cocoa  being  the  principal  exports. 

PORTO  RICO 

Porto  Rico  is  about  450  miles  slightly  southeast  of 
Cape  Maisi,  the  eastern  point  of  Cuba;  it  is  77  miles 
east  of  Haiti,  and  40  miles  west  of  the  island  of  St. 
Thomas  in  the  Virgin  group.  San  Juan  is  1,407  miles 
from  New  York,  1,255  miles  from  Norfolk,  1,539  miles 
from  New  Orleans,  and  959  miles  from  Colon.  Ha- 
bana,  Cuba,  is  1,045  miles  from  the  Porto  Rican 
capital. 

It  is  the  easternmost  island  of  the  group  called  the 
Greater  Antilles,  which  is  composed  of  Cuba,  Jamaica, 
Haiti,  and  Porto  Rico.  Its  geographical  position  is  be- 
tween 17°  54'  and  18°  30'  north  latitude  and 
65°  35'  and  67°  15'  west  longitude.  Its  conformation 
is  that  of  an  irregular  parallelogram,  the  length  east 
and  west  being  somewhat  less  than  100  miles  and  the 
average  width  north  and  south  about  35  miles. 

Porto  Rico  is  one  of  the  summits  of  the  great  range 
35 


of  submerged  mountains  that  rise  from  immense  depths 
in  the  ocean  and  form  the  Greater  Antilles  as  well  as 
the  group  of  islands  faither  to  the  east.  The  vast  pro- 
portions of  this  mountain  chain  may  be  judged  from 
adjacent  deep-sea  soundings.  The  "Brownson  Deep," 
one  of  the  most  profound  chasms  on  the  globe,  is  a  little 
less  than  100  miles  off  the  northcoast  of  the  island. 
From  here  this  stupendous  range  rises  from  a  depth  of 
27,000  feet  to  the  mountain  summits  above  sea  level. 
One  writer  upon  Porto  Rico  has  made  the  graphic 
statement  that  the  West  Indian  Islands  are  only  the 
protruding  tips  of  the  mightiest  and  most  precipitous 
mountain  range  in  the  world,  and  that  if  it  could  be 
pushed  up  above  the  surface  of  the  water  it  would  reach 
heavenward  to  a  greater  height  than  that  of  Mount 
Everest  in  the  Himalayas.  The  ocean  depths  near  the 
archipelago  are  the  greatest  known  in  the  Atlantic. 

The  total  area  of  3,606  square  miles  includes  Mona 
Island,  in  the  Mona  passage;  the  island  of  Caja  de 
Muertos,  southeast  of  Ponce  on  the  south  coast; 
Viequez,  or  Crab  Island,  off  the  center  of  the  east 
coast;  Culebra  Island,  about  18  miles  east  of  Cape 
San  Juan;  and  some  smaller  islands  near  the  northeast 
corner. 

Under  the  former  regime  there  were  only  two  classes 
of  people  in  the  island — the  rich  and  the  poor.  Under 
the  American  regime  there  is  gradually  growing  up  a 
middle  class,  neither  rich  nor  poor;  but  the  number  of 
poor  people  in  need  of  help  and  guidance  is  very  large. 

36 


The  average  Porto  Rican  is  a  mixture  of  races.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  large  mmber  of 
African  slaves  were  introduced,  and  this  strain  has  since 
received  impetus,  especially  along  the  coasts,  where 
there  has  been  immigration  of  negroes  from  the  thickly 
populated  British  islands.  Some  of  the  people  show 
evidences  of  Indian  blood,  while  the  Carib  type  is  some- 
times apparent. 

The  planters,  merchants,  professional  men,  and  large 
landowners  were  usually  of  pure  European  stock,  and 
they  have  taken  great  pride  in  keeping  that  stock  pure. 
There  are  a  great  many  persons  of  pureEuropean  descent 
on  the  island,  but  the  average  "jibaros,"  or  country- 
men, and  "peones,"  or  laborers,  are  usually  of  indeter- 
minate origin,  showing  traces  of  Indian,  Negro,  and 
Spaniard. 

The  census  of  1910  gave  the  population  of  Porto 
Rico  as  1,118,012.  At  the  estimated  rate  of  increase, 
the  total  population  at  the  beginning  of  1916  must  there- 
fore have  been  approximately  1,200,000.  The  census 
figures  of  1910  gave  the  island  a  population  of  a  frac- 
tion over  310  to  the  square  mile.  It  is  the  most  densely 
populated  area  under  the  dominion  of  the  United  States, 
except  the  States  of  Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersey, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  most  thickly  populated  countries  in 
the  world.  The  annual  increase  represented  by  the 
excess  of  births  over  deaths  amounts  to  2  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  population,  and  the  problem  of  overpopula- 
tion is  already  an  acute  one.  Gov.  Yager,  in  an  ad- 

37 


dress  at  the  Lake  Mohonk  Conference  in  1915  esti- 
mated the  population  in  that  year  at  350  per  square  mile, 
and  he  stated  this  to  be  a  greater  de  isity  than  that  of 
China  or  India  and  about  equal  to  that  of  Japan. 
The  distribution  is  general,  and  tie  center  of  popula- 
tion is  only  5  miles  from  the  geographic  center  of  the 
island.  Only  10  per  cent,  of  the  people  live  in  cities. 
Only  about  1  per  cent,  are  of  foreign  birth,  and  there  is 
practically  no  immigration  except  from  the  United 
States. 

JAMAICA 

After  passing  Cape  Maisi,  we  leave  another  of  the 
Great  Antilles,  Jamaica,  000  miles  west  of  our  course. 
It  is  the  third  largest  of  the  four  islands  included  in 
the  "Greater  Antilles,"  and  it  lies  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 
between  17°  43'  and  18°  32'  north  latitude,  and  between 
76°  11'  and  78°  20'  50"  west  longitude.  It  is  90miles 
from  the  southern  end  of  Cuba,  100  miles  from  Haiti, 
and  540  miles  from  the  Colon  entrance  to  the  Panama 
Canal.  It  has  a  length  of  144  miles,  its  greatest  width 
is  49  miles,  and  its  total  area  is  4,193  square  miles,  or 
2,683,520  acres.  Of  this  amount  only  646  square 
miles,  or  413,440  acres,  are  flat  land,  the  rest  being  hills 
and  mountains,  in  large  part  uncultivable. 

While  the  population  of  Jamaica  was  given  as 
831,383  by  the  census  of  1911,  it  was  estimated  in  1916 
at  897,196  and  in  1917  at  895,692,  the  slight  loss  being 

38 


accounted  for  by  the  excess  of  emigration  of  laborers 
to  Cuba  and  the  Canal  Zone  and  by  military  depart- 
ures. The  nonarrival  of  East  Indians  during  1917  was 
also  a  factor  in  the  loss. 

The  principal  resources  of  Jamaica  are  agricultural, 
although  there  is  much  forest  wealth  and  a  number  of 
deposits  of  minerals.  Small  streams,  only  a  few  of 
which  are  navigable  even  for  rowboats,  abound,  and, 
with  the  ample  rainfall,  are  of  great  importance  to  the 
farms  and  estates. 


AN  ISLAND  WITH  A  PAST 

Navassa,  the  island  with  a  past  is  only  about  two 
miles  long  and  one  mile  wide.  It  is  rather  level,  rising 
abruptly  from  its  shores  in  cliffs  from  20  to  60  feet  high 
to  a  plateau  rolling  gently  to  a  maximum  elevation  of 
250  feet.  Its  approaches  are  forbidding  and  landing 
is  impracticable  except  on  one  spot,  on  the  northwest 
shore,  and  where  landing  platforms  have  been  erected. 

There  is  no  water  on  Navassa  and  it  is  covered  with 
scrubby  vegetation.  Until  construction  of  the  light- 
house was  begun,  there  were  no  inhabitants  and  the 
only  near -domesticated  beings  living  there  were  wild 
dogs,  cats  and  goats,  the  progeny  of  animals  left  there 
by  former  guano  workers. 

In  spite  of  its  smallness  and  its  barrenness,  Navassa 
is  unusually  interesting. 

39 


(1)  It  lies  almost   directly   in   the  true  course   of 
vessels  plying  between  the  United  States,  Cape  Maysi 
and  Colon. 

(2)  The  United  States  has  provided  there  a  remark- 
able aid  to  navigation,  a  light  visible  27  miles,  exhibited 
395  feet  above  water,  from  a  cylindrical  tower.     It 
shows  two  short  flashes,  with  a  6  second  eclipse  be- 
tween, and  a  23  second  eclipse  following,  the  whole 
within  30  seconds. 

(3)  Navassa  was  the  object  of  diplomatic  conversa- 
tions with   an   unusual   ending  which,   perhaps,   was 
inspired,   at  least  in  part,  by  Esopus'   fable  of   the 
Oyster    and    the   Pleaders.     Haiti,    claimed    Navassa 
by  right  of  its  geographical  position.     Spain  appears 
to  have  had  some  claims  on  it,  which  Cuba  thought 
she  possessed  as  the  successor  of  Spain.     Both  Govern- 
ments appealed  to  Uncle  Sam  and  asked  him  to  decide 
against  the  other.     Uncle  Sam  could  have  done  what 
the  judge  in  the  fable  did,  but,  wise  as  ever,  he  told 
both  parties  that  a  light  on  the  island  would  enable 
passengers  on  steamers  which  may  pass  the  island  on 
a  moonless  night  to  have  at  least  some  kind  of  a  view 
of   the    landscape,    and    that,    incidentally,    mariners 
coming  that  way  would  be  much  helped  thereby.     He 
added  something  to  the  effect  that  he  would  feel  very 
much  inclined  to  adjudge  the  island  to  the  one  of  the 
pleaders  who  first  would   adequately   illuminate  the 
landscape.     Exit  of  the  pleaders.  .  .  . 

40 


(4)  Then,  Navassa  has  a  dark  past.  In  the  early 
eighties,  some  Guano  was  obtained  there  by  an  Ameri- 
can concern.  After  the  guano  had  been  all  removed, 
some  phosphate  rock  was  discovered.  A  com- 
pany was  formed  in  the  United  States  to  exploit  what 
were  claimed  to  be  inexhaustible  deposits  of  the  pre- 
cious mineral.  It  is  said  that  promoters  obtained 
something  like  sixteen  million  dollars  upon  these 
prospects.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  were  some  phos- 
phates on  Navassa.  The  phosphorus  of  some  of  the 
guano  had  leaked  into  fissures  and  combined  with  the 
calcium  of  the  lime  stone.  According  to  newspapers 
of  that  time,  lack  of  production  was  explained  by  pro- 
moters first  by  "revolution"  of  the  natives,  then  by 
seismic  disturbances  which  destroyed  the  property. 

If  we  pass  Navassa  early  enough  in  the  afternoon, 
we  may  see,  before  sundown  the  mountains  of  Haiti, 
beyond  Cape  Dame  Marie. 

We  are  now  crossing  the  Caribbean  and  our  next 
land  fall  will  be  Manzanillo  Point,  on  the  coast  of 
Panama. 


41 


CHAPTER  IV 


PANAMA 

After  crossing  the  Caribbean,  we  are  due  to  reach 
the  coast  of  Panama  at  Manzanillo  Point,  on  Isla 
Grande,  in  the  early  part  of  the  afternoon  of  the  sixth 
day  of  our  voyage.  The  Canal  Administration 
maintains  a  light  there,  from  which  alternating  a 
white  light  visible  18  miles,  and  a  red  light,  visible  5 
miles,  are  flashed  every  five  seconds. 

From  Manzanillo  Point,  it  is  a  little  less  than  two 
hours  to  the  entrance  of  Colon  Harbor. 

Already  an  hour  or  two  before  passing  abeam  of 
Manzanillo  light,  the  Panama  coast  may  be  seen  ia 
the  distance.  Manzanillo  may  be  located  well  in  ad- 
vance, by  observing  where  the  land  takes  a  sharp  turn, 
"coming"  nearer  to  us.  Near  there,  one  may  dis- 
tinguish two  round  islets,  on  the  higher  of  which, 
nearer  shore,  a  white  spot  may  be  seen — the  light  house. 

HISTORY,   TOPOGRAPHY,   CLIMATE 

"Isthmus  of  Panama"  is  a  comparatively  modern 
name.  The  Spaniards  called  Isthmus  of  the  Darien 
the  entire  territory  which  forms  the  connecting  link 

42 


between  South  and  Central  America,  even  after  the 
main  line  of  transcontinental  travel  had  shifted  from 
the  Darien  Region  to  the  route  Paaama-Nornbre  de 
Dios. 

Panama  was  a  State  of  the  Republic  of  New  Granada 
from  the  time  of  the  independence  of  that  country 
from  Spain,  and  it  became  a  province  of  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  at  its  reorganization  until  its  secession, 
November  3rd.,  1904.  Panamanians  claim  that  they 
joined  the  New  Granada  Confederacy  as  an  inde- 
pendent nation  and  not  as  a  province,  and  that  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  having  broken  the  original 
covenant,  they  were  justified  in  "resuming"  their  full 
independence. 

The  Territory  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  including 
the  Canal  Zone  has  an  area  of  32,380  square  miles,  and 
a  population  claimed  to  be  half  a  million,  but  is  prob- 
ably considerably  less.  In  its  makeup,  the  population 
shows  strange  contrasts.  It  includes,  on  the  one  hand, 
what  ethnologists  consider  the  most  thoroughbred 
human  race  (the  San  Bias  and  other  Indians,  of  which 
more  later)  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  most  non- 
descript mixture  imaginable  (various  strains  of  Euro- 
peans, several  Indian  breeds,  considerable  negro  ad- 
mixture, and  decided  traces  of  Chinese  and  Jap  blood). 

Two  mountain  chains  traverse  the  territory  of  the 
Republic,  narrowing  to  a  single  range  of  hills  in  the 
region  of  the  Canal.  Several  of  the  rivers  of  the 
country  would  be  more  useful  arteries  of  commuru- 

43 


cations  were  it  not  that  for  much  of  the  year  tropical 
rains  increase  their  volume  greatly,  endangering  and 
at  times  preventing  navigation.  Barring  floods,  the 
Tuya  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  about  100 
miles.  The  Bayamo,  the  Code,  the  Calebebora,  the 
Tarire  and  the  Los  Indios  rivers  are  navigable  from  20 
to  60  miles. 

It  appears  strange  that  there  should  be  a  considerable 
difference  of  climate  and  especially  of  rainfall  between 
the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  territory  of 
Panama,  even  at  points  as  near  one  another  as  Colon 
and  Panama.  The  rainfall  along  the  Caribbean  coast 
reaches  150  inches  annually,  while  that  on  the  Pacific 
side  rarely  exceeds  65  inches  annually.  The  former 
has  no  dry  season  whatever,  the  latter  sees  no  rain 
during  the  first  four  months  of  the  year. 

CANAL  ZONE 

The  United  States  has  acquired  for  999  years  ab- 
solute jurisdiction  over  5  miles  of  territory  on  each  side 
of  the  Canal,  but  the  area  of  the  cities  of  Panama  and 
Colon  were  excluded.  The  United  States  has  the  right 
to  govern  and  administer  the  Canal  Zone  as  if  it  were  its 
own,  but,  technically,  this  strip  of  land  remains  an 
integral  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Pana- 
ma and  is  not  a  U.  S.  possession.  This  treaty  ar- 
rangement manifests  itself  in  various  ways.  For  in- 
stance, inhabitants  of  the  Canal  Zone  pay  custom  du- 

44 


ties  to  Panama  for  everything  they  import  personally. 
Also,  a  sojourn  of  five  years  in  the  Canal  Zone  is  not 
residence  in  the  United  States  in  the  sense  of  naturali- 
zation laws.  Moreover,  Panama  has  retained  the 
post  office  privilege  in  the  Canal  Zone  and  has  merely 
let  the  privilege  to  the  U.  S.  P.  O.  in  the  Canal  Zone. 
The  latter  uses  Panama  Stamps  with  surcharge,  which 
it  purchases  at  40  cents  on  the  dollar  from  the  Republic 
of  Panama. 

Parts  of  the  lands  of  the  Canal  Zone  are  very  fer- 
tile and  a  great  many  of  the  Americans  whose  jobs  have 
ended  with  the  opening  of  the  Canal  would  have  liked 
to  homestead  there.  But,  Col.  Goethals  was  in  favor  of 
making  a  wilderness  of  the  Zone  for  military  reasons  and 
he  succeeded  in  making  a  congressional  commission 
and  congress  sees  his  way.  Nevertheless,  since  the  de- 
parture of  Goethals,  the  zone  has  not  been  allowed  en- 
tirely to  revert  to  the  bush,  but,  little  by  little,  it  is 
becoming  an  immense  cattle  range.  Indeed,  the  Zone 
has  already  produced  enough  beef  to  permit  exportation 
to  some  of  the  U.  S.  military  and  naval  establishments 
in  the  Caribbean. 

CENTERS  OF  POPULATION 

The  City  of  Panama  was  at  first  located  six  miles 
east  of  its  present  site,  and  interesting  ruins  of  the 
old  City,  Panama  Viejo,  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  pres- 
ent city  has  about  65,000  inhabitants,  about  12,000 
of  whom  are  whites,  including  many  Americans.  An- 

45 


con,  a  suburb  of  Panama  City,  and  Balboa,  the  port 
of  Panama,  are  within  the  Canal  Zone. 

Panama  is  the  oldest  city  of  European  origin  in 
the  Americas  and,  in  many  ways,  it  has  retained  the 
character  of  an  old  Spanish  City.  A  great  deal  re- 
mains of  the  city  walls  erected  in  1673,  when  the  city 
was  moved  to  its  present  location.  Among  the  ruins 
of  Spanish  times  is  an  architectural  curiosity,  the  Flat 
Arch,  which  is  very  nearly  flat. 

Colon,  some  years  ago,  might  have  been  called  a 
typical  Central  American  town  with  West  Indian 
fringes.  Since  the  great  fire,  in  1915,  which  destroyed 
most  of  it,  it  may  be  said  to  be  in  a  class  by  itself. 
Covered  side  walks,  with  posts  just  strong  enough  to 
support  the  story  above,  have  replaced  the  arcades  with 
the  wide  moorish  archways  which  obscured  the  stores 
within.  The  architecture  of  the  new  buildings  com- 
bine a  sober  mixture  of  the  Italian  taste  for  line  design 
and  Spanish  color,  and  the  result  is  a  new  city,  con- 
structed along  practical  and  sanitary  lines,  with  just 
enough  adornment  to  render  it  attractive. 

Colon  has  about  30,000  inhabitants,  two-thirds  of 
which  are  West  Indian  negroes. 

On  the  other  side  of  First  Street  begins  Cristobal, 
Canal  Zone,  which  is,  in  part,  a  residential  city  for  Ca- 
nal employees  and  the  seat  of  offices  of  the  Canal 
Administration  and  steamship  agencies. 

Little  by  little,  the  residences  of  Cristobal  are  giv- 
ing way  to  office  buildings  and  a  new  Zone  residential 

46 


city  is  being  gradually  created  at  New  Cristobal,  to- 
wards Mount  Hope. 

David,  the  third  city  of  Panama,  and  its  port,  Pedre- 
gal,  are  the  outlet  for  the  Province  of  Chiriqui,  near  the 
Costarican  border.  The  province  is  a  vast  cattle 
country  and  coffee  and  cocoa  of  excellent  quality  are 
produced  in  appreciable  quantities  in  the  high  lands, 
especially  around  Boquete. 

Between  Chiriqui  and  the  Canal  are  the  provinces 
of  Los  Santos,  Cocle,  and  Veraguas.  The  latter  was 
named  in  honor  of  Columbus,  who  was  made  Duke  of 
Veraguas. 

It  may  be  remembered  that  one  of  the  direct  de- 
scendent  of  the  discoverer  of  the  New  World,  a  Duke  de 
Veraguas  de  la  Cerda,  visited  the  Chicago  exposition 
in  1893. 

Veraguas  province  has  another  historical  remini- 
scence, namely,  Montijo,  a  district  named  from  the  old 
Spanish  family  of  which  Eugenie,  Empress  of  the 
French,  was  a  daughter. 

On  the  Atlantic  side,  west  of  Colon,  is  Chiriqui 
Lagoon,  with  Almirante  Bay,  which  are  occasionally 
used  as  field  for  manoeuvres  by  U.  S.  naval  units  sta- 
tioned in  Canal  waters.  In  that  region,  around 
Bocas  del  Toro,  and  also  the  newer  town  of  Almi- 
rante, a  little  further  north  are  very  extensive  banana 
plantations  of  the  United  Fruit  Company,  which  are 
served  by  over  300  miles  of  railways. 

47 


THE  ATLANTIC  SIDE 

Southeast  of  the  City  of  Colon,  the  province  of  the 
same  name  extends  for  200  miles  towards  the  Colom- 
bian border.  The  dividing  line  between  Colon  Pro- 
vince and  that  of  Panama  is  a  mountain  range  called 
the  Serrana  del  Darien.  In  this  region,  between  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  Bayamo  and  the  Chucunique 
Rivers  live  several  Indian  tribes  who  still  maintain  a 
large  measure  of  isolation.  Even  the  President  of 
Panama  has  been  refused  permission  to  visit  these 
territories. 

Among  these  Indians  are  the  San  Bias,  whose  terri- 
tory begins  a  few  miles  east  of  Manzanillo  Point, 
the  part  of  the  coast  of  Panama  which  we  passed  about 
two  hours  before  arriving  in  Colon.  The  territory 
claimed  by  the  San  Bias  comprises  a  coastal  strip  of 
about  120  miles,  together  with  some  360  islands  and 
islets. 

THE  PUREST  HUMAN  RACE 

Ethnologists  say  that  the  San  Bias  Indians  are 
probably  the  purest  race  of  humans.  They  are  pre 
sumed  to  have  inbred  without  a  trace  of  foreign  blood 
for  some  1,500  years;  they  have  never  been  subdued, 
either  by  the  Spaniards  or  the  Colombians,  After  it 
became  independent,  Panama  planned  to  force  them 
into  submission,  but  gave  up  the  project  of  a  military 
expedition  largely  upon  the  representation  of  scientists. 

48 


Instead  of  force,  the  Government  of  Panama  is  endeav- 
oring a  policy  of  infiltration,  however,  with  little  suc- 
cess. 

The  San  Bias  are  practically  independent  and  they 
govern  themselves  by  a  form  of  patriarchal  adminis- 
tration. Unlike  other  Indians,  the  San  Bias  do  not 
live  in  huts,  but  in  large  sheds  which  sometimes  house 
a  dozen  or  more  families.  One  of  their  laws  is  that  no 
stranger  is  allowed  to  spend  the  night  in  their  terri- 
tory, but,  some  years  ago,  an  exception  was  made  in 
favor  of  a  crippled,  old,  shipwrecked  negro  sailor.  A 
year  later,  a  San  Bias  girl  gave  birth  to  a  colored  child. 
The  council  of  the  nation  decided  that  she,  the  father 
and  their  child  should  be  put  to  death  forthwith. 
More  recently,  another  exception  was  made  in  favor 
of  an  English  and  an  American  lady,  the  latter,  Mrs. 
Potts,  who  were  allowed  to  remain  and  conduct  a 
mission  school.  After  mature  deliberation,  the  council 
decided  that  they  both  were  past  the  danger  age. 

In  spite  of  inbreeding  and  voluntary  isolation, 
the  San  Bias  Indians  show  no  sign  of  degeneracy.  On 
the  very  contrary,  they  are  a  virile,  intelligent  race  and, 
although  very  conservative  in  their  opinions,  they  are 
far  from  "narrow."  Many  of  their  young  men  work 
as  sailors  on  American  or  British  sailing  vessels,  trad- 
ing between  the  Caribbean  and  the  North  Atlantic 
coast.  After  from  5  to  7  years  "at  sea,"  they  return 
to  their  beloved  coast,  never  to  leave  it  except  for 
trading  trips  or  occasional  visits  to  Colon  or  Panama. 

49 


At  all  times,  visiting  San  Bias  are  shown  the  utmost 
benevolent  courtesy.  The  President  of  Panama  once 
remarked,  "after  all,  they  are  the  only  true  Panama- 
nians and  the  legitimate  owners,  though  not  the  pos- 
sessors, of  the  best  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Re- 
public." 

The  San  Bias  are  not  only  sailors,  but  they  are  good 
traders.  They  bring  to  Colon  ivory  nuts,  coconuts, 
balata,  turtle  shells,  a  few  sponges  and  some  gold. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  contribute  to  the  international 
trade  of  Panama  in  a  very  much  larger  proportion 
than  any  other  factions  of  the  people.  It  is  claimed 
that  their  coconuts  are  the  best  in  the  world;  they  shell 
unusually  well,  are  of  fair  size  and  of  fine  flavor  and 
contain  a  larger  proportion  of  "meat"  and  oil  than 
most  varieties. 

HISTORICAL  SPOTS 

Some  10  miles  west  of  Manzanillo  Point,  our  first 
landmark  along  the  Panama  Coast,  lies  Porto  Bello, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  named  by  Columbus  him- 
self. While  he  never  had  set  foot  on  the  American 
continent,  it  is  said  that  this  beautiful  little  harbor  is 
the  nearest  he  had  come  to  Continental  shores.  There 
are  interesting  ruins  from  Spanish  and  Morgan  times 
in  Porto  Bello. 

In  the  same  region  is  Nombre  de  Dios,  in  a  district 
which  is  called  Tierra  Firma  (main  land).  Accord- 

50 


ing  to  chronicles,  the  conquistador  Juan  de  Solis  was, 
in  the  year  1500,  sailing  the  Caribbean  in  search  of  a 
mainland,  the  Spaniards,  thus  far,  having  discovered 
only  islands.  A  sailor  on  the  lookout  having  discovered 
a  high  hill,  exclaimed  "En  Nombre  de  Dios  sea,  que 
veo  tierra  firma"  (be  it  in  the  name  of  God  that  I  see 
the  mainland).  The  city  founded  there  by  Solis  was 
then  named  Nombre  de  Dios. 

A  short  distance  inland  from  Nombre  de  Dios  are 
quarries  which  supplied  most  of  the  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  sand  and  gravel  used  in  concrete-making  during 
the  building  period  of  the  Canal. 

In  the  region  are  important  manganese  deposits 
worked  by  an  American  Company.  In  the  hinter- 
land, a  Panama  Company  composed  mainly  of  Ameri- 
cans, residents  of  the  Isthmus,  has  a  concession  for 
the  exploitation  of  "tagua"  (ivory  nuts)  which  is  said 
to  be  abundant. 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 

The  railway  mileage  of  Panama,  including  the  Zone, 
is  somewhat  over  500  miles,  considerably  over  half  of 
which  are  "banana  roads"  of  the  United  Fruit  Com- 
pany. 

The  Panama  Railroad  was  built  and  opened  by 
an  American  company  in  1855,  to  which  the  Govern- 
ment of  Colombia  gave  an  absolute  monopoly  of  trans- 
portation across  the  Isthmus.  At  one  time  the  Com- 

51 


pany  even  interpreted  its  concession  in  a  way  that 
prevented  people  from  crossing  the  isthmus  on  foot 
with  any  kind  of  bundle.  The  seven  millions  worth 
of  stock  of  the  Company  are  now  absolutely  owned 
by  the  U.  S. 

The  only  other  common  carrier  railroad  is  that  of 
Chiriqui,  a  3-foot  gauge  line  from  Pedregal  and  David 
to  Boquete,  with  a  spur  to  Buga. 

Two  great  railroad  projects  have  been  discussed 
for  a  number  of  years,  namely,  one  from  the  Chagres 
River  to  Almirante,  and  a  line  from  Panama  City  along 
the  Pacific  coast  to  David,  with  junction  of  the  present 
Chiriqui  Railroad  with  both  the  United  Fruit  system 
in  the  region  cf  Almirante,  and  the  Costa  Rican  system. 
There  has  also  been  a  project  of  settlement  of  the  very 
fertile  upper  Chagres  region  and  the  construction  of  a 
railroad  with  terminal  at  Gatun. 

These  projects  have  faced  from  the  start  the  open 
opposition  and  even  the  absolute  veto  of  the  Canal  Ad- 
ministration and  the  U.  S.  War  Department.  The 
settlement  of  the  upper  Chagres  is  not  desired  because 
it  may  possibly  endanger  the  water  supply  of  the  Canal 
and.  For  military  reasons,  the  crossing  of  the  Canal 
Zone  by  either  reads  or  railroads  is  not  likely  to  be 
permitted,  however  much  the  Republic  of  Panama 
may  be  benefitted  by  them. 

Outside  of  the  few  miles  constructed  by  the  Canal 
Administration  in  the  Zone,  there  are  no  roads  worthy 
of  that  name  in  the  Republic.  Because  of  the  heavy 

52 


downpours  during  the  8  months  of  the  wet  season,  or- 
dinary roads  are  frequently  washed  out,  and  the  con- 
struction of  weather  proof  roads  would  demand  ex- 
penditure hardly  in  proportion  to  their  need. 

Nevertheless,  the  Government  of  Panama  has  now 
sufficient  money  availble  for  the  construction  of  300 
miles  of  new  roads. 

AGRICULTURE 

The  average  soil  of  Panama  is  remarkably  fertile 
and  climatic  conditions  are  very  favorable  to  agricul- 
tural production,  but  in  spite  of  efforts  and  encourage- 
ments given  by  the  Panama  Government,  only  a  very 
small  portion  of  the  territory  is  under  cultivation. 

Bananas  are  the  most  important  crop.  The  value 
of  the  holdings  of  the  United  Fruit  Co.  in  the  districts 
of  Almirante  and  Bocas  del  Toro  is  estimated  at  con- 
siderably over  $10,000,000.  Coconuts  are  the  sec- 
ond largest  crop  and,  in  spite  of  present  low  prices, 
Sugar  is  promising. 

Panama  abounds  in  cane  lands  producing  from  50 
to  70  tons  of  cane  to  the  acre.  Coffee  and  cocoa  of 
quality  equal  to  the  Costa  Rican  product  are  produced 
in  increased  quantities,  and  the  cattle  industry  has  at- 
tained considerable  proportions.  Some  of  the  land 
and  climatic  conditions  in  the  province  of  Veraguas 
are  said  to  resemble  the  best  tobacco  lands  of  the 
Vuelt'  Abajo,  Cuba,  and  tobacco  of  good  quality  is 

53 


produced  there  without  the  special  care  which  that 
crop  requires.  Citrus  fruit  does  exceedingly  well, 
both  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  sides,  and  oppor- 
tunities await  California  or  Florida  experts. 

The  inportance  of  the  forests  of  Panama  has  often 
been  exaggerated,  but,  even  if  discounted,  it  is  consider- 
able. The  largest  and  best  timber  tracks  are  on  the 
Pacific  side  and  exploitation  is  difficult  because  of  in- 
accessibility and  expense  of  transportation. 

Gold  and  manganese  in  small  quantities  are  the  only 
two  minerals  mined  in  Panama. 


A  FEW  CANAL  FACTS 

From  Christobal  to  Balboa,  the  Canal  runs  in  an 
easterly  and  NOT  westerly  direction,  and  the  Pacific 
entrance  is  east  of  the  Atlantic. 

As  the  crow  flies,  the  Pacific  entrance  is  22  miles  from 
the  Atlantic  entrance,  but  the  Canal  is  45  miles  long. 

There  is  practically  no  difference  of  level  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  at  the  Canal  entrances. 

We  cross  the  old  French  Canal  soon  after  entering 
the  Canal  at  Cristobal. 

The  minimum  elevation  of  Gatun  Lake  is  84  feet. 

When  sailing  Gatun  Lake,  the  Channel  runs  almost 
directly  over  the  now  submerged  towns  of  Gorgona 
and  Matachin  (the  latter  one  of  tbe  French  head- 
quarters). Gorgona  was  for  several  years  the  head- 

54 


quarters  of  the  mechanical  division  of  the  American 
Canal,  employing  2,000  men. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  "marriage  of  the 
Oceans."  Traces  of  salt  water  enter  Miraflores  Lake; 
they  are  not  sufficient  to  give  the  water  a  briny  taste, 
but  quite  enough  to  make  the  water  "hard"  and 
unfit  for  domestic  purposes.  On  the  other  hand,  no 
sea  water  can  ever  reach  above  the  third  flights  of  locks. 

The  first  flight  of  three  locks,  coming  from  the  At- 
lantic, is  at  Gatun.  The  innocent  looking  long  mound 
covered  with  green  lawn  is  the  famous  Gatun  Dam, 
THE  real  engineering  feature  of  the  Canal.  The  upper 
edge  of  Gatun  spillway  is  at  a  minimum  of  84  feet 
above  the  old  bed  of  the  Chagres  River  below.  The 
surplus  water  of  Gatun  Lake— if  any — is  used  as  water 
power,  to  supplement  the  main  powerhouse  of  the  Canal, 
located  at  Miraflores. 

The  one  flight  lock  at  the  exit  of  the  "cut"  is  Pedro 
Miguel,  which  is  pronounced  in  American  "Peter 
Magill."  At  the  exit  of  that  lock  we  enter  Miraflores 
lake  and  then  the  two-flight  Miraflores  locks. 

At  Miraflores  are  located  the  water  works  for  the 
Pacific  side  of  the  Zone  and  the  City  of  Panama.  The 
water  is  taken  from  Gatun  Lake  and  pumped  to  a  reser- 
voir visible  from  the  locks.  It  is  then  filtered  and 
aerated,  the  jets  of  the  aeration  works  being  visible 
from  the  ship.  The  waterworks  for  the  Atlantic  side 
of  the  Zone  and  the  City  of  Colon  are  located  at  Mount 
Hope,  two  miles  from  Colon. 

55 


The  town  at  the  end  of  Gatun  Lake,  coming  from 
Cristobal,  is  Gamboa,  where,  in  August,  1913,  the  big 
dyke  was  blown  up.  The  Chagres  flows  there  into  Ga- 
tun Lake,  usually  an  innocently  looking  stream,  but 
at  times  an  impetuous  torrent. 

The  locks  are  1,100  feet  long  and  110  feet  wide. 

The  first  suction  dredge  used  by  Americans  was  a 
left  over  from  French  times.  Three  French  tugs,  two 
ladder  dredges  and  quite  a  number  of  locomotives 
as  well  as  other  material  dating  from  French  times 
are  still  in  use. 

The  huge  steel  structures  at  the  entrance  of  each 
lock  are  emergency  dams.  Heavy  chains  raise  auto- 
matically when  gates  are  closed,  to  prevent  damage 
to  gates,  should  a  ship  get  beyond  control.  The  opera- 
tion of  the  Canal  depends  upon  a  sufficient  level  of 
Gatun  Lake  and  many  devices  were  worked  out  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  waste  of  water.  The  banks 
of  Gatun  Lake  are  patroled  daily  to  make  sure  that  no 
damage  to  the  bank  has  occurred  which  could  en- 
danger the  level  of  the  lake. 

The  following  table  show*  distances  from  New  York, 
in  miles: 

Via 

Magellan         Via  Distance 

Straits  Canal  Saved 

To  Guayaquil 10,215            2,310  7,405 

To  Callao 9,613           3,363  6,250 

To  Valparaiso 8,380           4,623  3,757 

56 


The  sanitation  of  the  Isthmus,  without  which  the 
Canal  could  not  have  been  built,  is  the  work  of  Col., 
later  General  Gorgas.  Credit  for  Gatun  Spillway  is 
due  to  General  Siebert.  The  plans  for  the  conquest 
of  Cucuracha,  Gold,  and  Contractor's  Hills,  were 
made  by  Gaillard  (hence  the  official  name  for  Culebra 
Cut  is  Gaillard  Cut).  The  mechanical  devices  of  the 
locks  were  designed  mainly  by  Schiklhauer.  Some  of 
the  features  of  the  port  terminals  are  the  work  of 
Naval  Constructor,  known  as  "admiral"  Rousseau. 
The  balissage  and  aids  to  navigation  were  planned  by 
Captain,  now  Vice-Admiral  Rodman.  Goethals  was 
not  essentially  a  great  engineer,  but  he  was  a  great 
organizer,  administrator  and  diplomat. 

Next  to  these  men,  credit  for  the  building  of  the 
Canal  should  be  given  to  plain,  ordinary  American 
workmen,  called  on  the  Isthmus  "rough-necks,"  and 
to  the  "high-brows"  which  constituted  the  office  force. 

These,  at  the  beginning  of  the  building  period,  faced 
the  unknown,  imperfect  sanitation,  malaria,  lack  of 
comfort  and  even  hardships.  They  had  to  contend 
with  even  worse,  nostralgia,  loneliness  away  from  home. 

Credit  must  also  be  given  to  an  intelligent  adminis- 
tration which  recognized  from  the  start  one  of  the  mis- 
takes made  by  the  French.  All  the  pasttimes  provided 
for  the  French  employes  were  cheap  cabarets,  houses  of 
prostitution,  gambling  and  drinking — all  demoraliz- 
ing influences. 

In  contrast  with  that,  the  American  administration, 

57 


from  the  very  start,  encouraged  home  life  on  the  Isth- 
mus in  every  possible  way,  and  provided  wholesome 
entertainment  for  the  employes  in  the  Club  Houses, 
under  Y.  M.  C.  A.  management. 

Credit  is  also  due  to  the  many  wives,  daughters, 
sisters  and  other  near-relatives  who  left  comfortable 
homes  and  went  to  the  Isthmus  to  stand  by  their  men. 
Although  they  did  not  handle  tools,  nor  bossed  gangs 
of  laborers,  they  have  also  helped  build  the  Canal. 

But  40,000  black  and  colored  West  Indian  laborers 
must  not  be  forgotten.  With  all  their  faults,  they 
have,  as  a  whole,  been  faithful  helpers,  and  they  were 
one  of  the  essential  instruments  of  Canal  Construction. 


LEAVING  PANAMA 

Immediately  after  leaving  Balboa,  we  pass  the  islets 
of  Nao,  Perico  and  Flamenco,  and,  a  fraction  of  a 
mile  further,  the  rock  of  San  Jose,  with  ruins  of  Span- 
ish times.  These  islets  are  now  U.  S.  reservation  and 
form  part  of  the  Canal  Defenses.  The  breakwater 
connecting  these  islands  with  the  mainland  was  con- 
structed with  stone  carried  all  the  way  from  the  At- 
lantic side,  no  rock  of  sufficient  durability  having  been 
found  on  this  side  of  the  Cordillera. 

On  the  west  side,  we  may  see  a  group  of  houses  along 
the  shore — the  Palo  Seco  leper  Asylum,  with  over  a 
hundred  unfortunate  inmates. 

58 


The  mountainous  island  now  before  us  is  Taboga, 
an  island  paradise,  where  one  could  just  "live."  It 
has  an  incomparable  climate,  free  from  mosquitoes 
and  lovely  scenery — waterfalls,  and  even  small  lakes 
and  picturesque  walks,  as  if  made  to  order  by  a  genius 
of  an  artist  to  adorn  miniature  valleys  and  mountains. 

Taboga  has  been  for  generations  the  favorite  "sum- 
mer resort"  of  Panamanians  and  the  Canal  Adminis- 
tration maintains  there  a  hotel  and  a  home  for  con- 
valescents. It  is  a  great  pity  that  those  in  charge  of 
devising  means  of  defence  of  the  Canal  have  found  it 
necessary  to  invade  Taboga  for  the  prosaic  purpose  of 
making  parts  of  it  a  fortress.  The  military  authori- 
ties have  promised  to  the  Government  of  Panama 
that  the  charms  of  the  island  will  not  be  disturbed, 
and  that  it  will  continue  to  be  a  health  resort  for 
civilians;  nevertheless,  judging  from  previous  exper- 
iences with  "military  necessity,"  they,  with  some  just- 
ice fear  that  it  will  not  be  long  until  all  Taboga  will 
be  declared  military  reservation. 

Three  small  islets  are  appended  to  Taboga. 

Viewed  from  the  north,  before  we  pass  it,  the  island 
of  Taboguilla  appears  as  if  laying  south  of  Taboga, 
while  it  is  almost  due  east  of  it.  Immediately  south  of 
Taboguilla  is  the  islet  of  Urava.  Both  islands  are 
occasionally  made  the  headquarters  of  grouper,  saw 
fish  fishing  and  inagua  hunting  expeditions  by  Canal 
employes.  Next  to  Tarpon  fishing  below  Gatun  Spill- 
way and  crocodile  hunting  in  the  Bayano  (chepo) 

59 


River,  these  are  the  most  exciting  sports  on  the  Isth- 
mus. 

A  little  further  along  our  course,  we  pass  the  island 
of  Chame,  which  is  very  fertile,  and  the  Valladolid 
Rocks.  On  the  west  shore  of  Chame  is  a  village 
named  La  Goleta. 

Some  20  miles  south  of  Balboa,  we  pass  the  islands 
of  Otoque  and  Bona.  On  the  latter,  the  Canal  Ad- 
ministration maintains  a  light,  exhibited  700  feet 
above  water  from  a  white  skeleton  tower  which  we 
may  distinguish  on  the  top  of  the  hill.  It  is  visible 
15  miles  and  shows  a  3 -second  flash  followed  by  a  10 
seconds  eclipse. 

After  passing  Bona,  we  lose  sight  of  land  until  we 
pass  Cape  Mala,  some  7  hours  after  leaving  Balboa. 
Cape  Mala  light,  shows  for  five  seconds  every  20  sec- 
onds and  is  visible  18  miles. 

After  passing  Cape  Mala,  we  again  lose  sight  of  land 
until  we  come  near  Cape  Pasado,  on  the  Ecuadorean 
coast. 

ANCIENT  CANAL  PROJECTS 

After  leaving  Balboa,  we  cross  the  Bay  of  Panama 
lengthwise.  To  our  east,  slightly  too  far  to  be  seen 
from  the  ship,  are  the  Pearl  Islands,  well  deserving 
of  that  name,  and,  beyond  them,  the  Darien,  and  we 
almost  regret  to  be  unable  to  sail  nearer  that  historic- 
ally interesting  region. 

60 


Modern  man  is  so  full  of  the  thoughts  of  his  own 
great  achievements  that  he  is  inclined  to  forget  that 
there  is  really  nothing  new  under  the  Sun.  When 
early  New  World  navigators  realized  that  the  stretch 
of  land  which  now  forms  the  Republic  of  Panama 
was  a  barrier  to  the  sea  route  to  the  Indies  and  China 
they  were  seeking,  they  quite  naturally  sought  means 
of  overcoming  it. 

Already  in  the  16th  century,  engineers  made  com- 
prehensive plans  for  a  sea  level  canal  across  the  Is- 
thmus of  the  Darien.  By  using  the  San  Miguel  River, 
it  would  have  been  only  25  miles  long,  16  of  which  a 
tunnel  under  the  Cordillera.  At  that  time,  Spain 
was  by  far  the  most  wealthy  and  the  most  powerful 
country  on  earth,  and  Indian  labor  was  available  by 
the  millions  at  the  cost  of  their  feed.  No  doubt  at 
least  an  attempt  to  realize  the  project  would  have  been 
made  had  not  the  Archbishop  of  Madrid  advised  King 
Phillip  II,  that  "what  God  hath  joined  together,  let 
no  man  tear  asunder." 

During  the  centuries  which  followed,  the  possibility 
of  diggirg  and  borirg  a  Darien  Canal  was  often  dis- 
cussed and  the  impractibility  of  the  idea  has  probably 
retarded  by  many  years  the  actual  attempt  to  make  a 
trans-isthmian  canal. 

Americans  interested  in  the  Panama  Railroad  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  first  to  have  seriously  con- 
sidered a  canal  between  Panama  and  Aspinwall  (as 
Colon  was  then  named),  but  de  Lesseps  was  the 

61 


first  to  make  actual  efforts    to   put    the   idea    into 
realization. 

A  GIGANTIC  SCHEME 

The  Darien  is  historically  interesting  also  because  of 
another  gigantic  scheme,  in  its  financial  scope  even  sur- 
passing the  financing  of  the  Canal.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  stupendous  undertakings  ever  devised  and  prob- 
ably the  most  rapid  and  dismal  great  failure  ever  ex- 
perienced by  man. 

In  May,  1695,  the  freebooter  James  Chiesley  ap- 
proached William  Patterson,  the  founder  of  the  Bank 
of  England,  and  proposed  to  him  to  make  the  Darien 
a  great  international  free  port,  the  commercial  center 
of  the  world,  and  the  key  to  world  trade.  A  few  years 
later,  upon  a  favorable  report  from  another  adventurer, 
Lionel  Wafer,  Patterson  founded  a  great  commercial 
company  to  which  the  Scotch  Parliament  gave  a  mo- 
nopoly of  foreign  trade.  Plans  for  large  cities  were 
made;  enormous  warehouses  were  to  be  built  and  every 
one  who  invested  in  the  undertaking  was  to  become 
wealthy  and  a  citizen  of  the  world. 

The  scheme  seemed  so  feasible  that  money  almost 
flew  into  the  offices  of  the  Company.  Bankers  of  the 
City  of  London  subscribed  among  themselves  900,000 
pounds,  and  other  subscriptions  amounted  to  many 
millions.  In  due  time,  many  ships  sailed  for  the 
promised  land  loaded  with  emigrants,  mostly  Scotch, 

62 


but  the  Indians  killed  many  on  arrival,  diseases  deci- 
mated their  ranks  further,  and  the  Spaniards  drove 
away  the  rest.  Subsequent  expeditions  were  not  any 
more  fortunate  and  all  that  is  left  of  the  great  "Darien 
Scheme"  are  a  few  family  and  geographical  names  in 
the  region. 

The  Darien  is  also  historically  interesting  for  legends 
of  inexhaustible  gold  deposits.  Many  gold  seekers 
made  vain  attempts  to  locate  them,  but  nothing  un- 
usually interesting  has  ever  been  discovered.  Only  a 
small  French  company  and  a  few  individual  gold  dig- 
gers operate  in  the  Darien  at  present. 


63 


CHAPTER    V 


TOPOGRAPHY  CLIMATE 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  (under  Spanish  rule  the 
Vice-Regal  province  of  New  Grenada),  after  its  eman- 
cipation the  Republic  of  New  Grenada  and  later  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  until  the  present  central 
form  of  government  was  adopted,  has  an  area  of  1,235,- 
214  square  kilometres,  or  476,916  square  miles.  In 
population,  it  ranks  third  among  South  American 
countries  with  5,472,804  inhabitants,  or  11.47  to  the 
square  mile.  By  far  the  majority  are  "mestizos,"  of 
white  and  indian  mixed.  Along  the  coasts  there  are 
many  blacks  and  mulattos. 

The  topography  of  the  country  is  very  irregular. 
At  what  is  known  as  the  Knot  of  Pasco,  near  the  Ecua- 
dorean  border,  the  mountains  branch  off  into  three 
main  ranges,  which  form  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  South  American  Andes  and  encloses  a  vast  terri- 
tory of  very  diversified  aspect.  The  western  range 
borders  the  Pacific  Ocean;  the  Central  Range  separates 
the  Cauca  from  the  Magdalena  River  basins,  while 

64 


the  Eastern  Range  extends  into  Venezuela,  forming 
the  mountain  backbone  of  that  country. 

The  most  important  and  best  known  river  of  Colom- 
bia is  the  Magdalena,  which  is  navigable  for  about 
1,300  kilometres  (over  800  miles)  and  forms  the  prin- 
cipal artery  of  commerce  of  the  country  and  especially 
the  main  highway  to  Bogota  and  Medellin.  The  Cauca, 
a  tributary  of  the  Magdalena,  is  830  miles  long,  but 
navigable  only  for  325  miles.  The  Atrato,  350  miles 
long,  but  navigable  for  less  than  two-thirds  of  its 
length,  empties  near  the  Panama  border,  but  its  source 
is  less  than  a  hundred  miles  from  one  of  the  sources 
of  the  Orinoco,  which  flows  into  the  Atlantic. 

The  artist,  the  lover  of  majestic  mountain  ranges, 
of  awe-inspiring  volcanoes,  of  appalling  gorges  and 
vertigineous  precipices,  of  roaring  torrents  and  pic- 
turesque scenery,  of  primeval  forest  contrasting  with 
the  colorful,  luxuriant  herbaceous  growth,  flowering 
vines  and  delicate  orchids,  as  well  as  the  admirer  of 
idyllic  pastoral  nature  and  prosaic  farming,  will  hardly 
find  a  country  equalling  Colombia. 

One  of  the  striking  features  of  the  climate  of  Colom- 
bia is  that,  although  located  entirely  within  the  tropi- 
cal zone,  it  is  even  more  varied  than  that  of  the  United 
States.  There  are  entire  Alpine  regions,  not  merely 
isolated  peaks,  and  between  these  and  the  coast  lands 
almost  every  variety  of  climate  imaginable  is  to  be 
found.  The  record  of  equanimity  of  temperature  is 
probably  held  by  Popayan,  in  the  Upper  Cauca,  where 

65 


the  annual  maxima  vary  only  between  72  and  75  de- 
grees, and  the  annual  minima  between  65  and  68  de- 
grees. 

The  principal  cities,  with  their  populations,  are: 
Bogota,  140,000  inhabitants;  Medellin,  71,004;  Baran- 
quilla,  48,907;  Cartagena,  36,632;  Manizales,  34,720: 
Pasto,  27,760;  Cali,  27,747;  Cucuta,  20,364;  Bucara- 
manga,  19,735;  and  Popayan,  18,720. 


AGRICUTURE  AND  INDUSTRIES 

The  main  industry  of  Colombia  is  agriculture.  In 
spite  of  its  mountainous  character,  probably  as  much 
as  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  country  is  capable  of 
development  along  agricultural  lines. 

The  most  important  agricultural  industry  is  cattle. 
In  the  department  of  Bolivar,  there  are  over  a  million 
and  a  half  head  of  cattle,  and  in  the  entire  country 
probably  considerably  over  five  millions.  The  Govern- 
ment makes  every  effort  to  develop  the  industry. 
The  largest  cattle  land  concession  is  that  of  an  American 
company,  with  headquarters  at  Mompos,  on  the  Mag 
dalena  River.  It  controls  about  one  million  hectares 
(2,500,000  acres),  between  that  river  and  the  Cauca 
River. 

Coffee  is  the  second  leading  product  of  Colombia, 
the  total  exports  reaching  over  20  million  dollars  an- 

66 


nually,  about  two-fifths  of  which  so-called  "Bogota," 
produced  in  the  Department  of  Condinamarca. 

Bananas  are  also  one  of  the  major  crops,  an  average 
of  6  million  bunches  being  exported  annually  from  Santa 
Marta  alone. 

Sugar  and  Cotton  are  normally  well  paying  crops 
and  their  culture  by  modern  methods  would  seem  to 
offer  many  opportunities. 

The  forest  resources  of  Colombia  are  enormous, 
but  the  best  timber  tracks  are  located  too  far  from 
adequate  means  of  transportation  to  be  immediately 
available.  Thus  far,  only  mahogany  and  Spanish 
Cedar  are  exported  in  large  quantities. 

The  only  manufacturing  industry  of  Colombia, 
which  has  attained  some  degree  of  intensive  develop- 
ment, is  the  textile,  in  which  some  4  million  dollars 
are  invested,  mostly  local  capital,  in  21  establishments. 
Their  entire  production  is  consumed  by  the  domestic 
market. 

MINERAL  WEALTH 

Almost  every  known  variety  of  commercially  im- 
portant mineral  is  found  in  Colombia,  and  great  fu- 
ture is  promised  to  the  mining  industry,  when  once 
better  means  of  communication  will  have  been  estab- 
lished. 

For  some  years,  both  American  and  British  interests 
have  had  men  scouring  the  country  for  oil  prospecrs, 

67 


and  they  also  have  had  political  agents  in  Bogota  and 
in  departmental  capitals,  in  an  endeavor  to  obtain 
monopolies,  and,  in  default,  concessions. 

Oil  interests  have  so  overbidden  one  another,  and 
spent  so  much  money  uselessly,  that  many  private 
owners  of  oil  lands  have  gained  an  exaggerated  value 
of  their  holdings  and  thus  actually  retarded  develop- 
ment. Moreover,  development  has  also  been  retarded 
by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  best  oil  fields  are  located 
in  almost  impenetrable  sections  of  the  country,  to 
which  oil  drilling  machinery  and  supplies  can  be  carried 
only  with  great  difficulties. 

Since  Russian  production  ceased,  Colombia  has  be- 
come the  most  important  source  of  platinum,  in  the 
World. 

The  history  of  mining  of  that  metal  has  quite  a 
romantic  side.  It  was  discovered  in  the  district  of 
Choco  by  a  French  expedition,  which  reported  its 
resistibility  to  acids  as  a  curiosity.  The  metal  was 
considered  valueless  because  of  the  difficulty  in  work- 
ing it.  It  is  only  in  the  19th  century  that  laboratory 
demands,  and  especially  the  requirements  of  the  elec- 
trical industry  caused  platinum  to  take  rank  among 
the  precious  metals. 

Previously,  in  the  placer  mining  of  Colombia,  plati- 
num was  thrown  away  with  the  waste,  but  when  its 
price  rose,  dumps  were  reworked  and  even  the  streets 
of  Quibdo  were  torn  up  and  washed  for  particles  of 
the  metal.  Platinum  mining  in  Colombia  is  controlled 


by  an  American  and  an  English  syndicate,  who  are 
said  to  have  made  a  pooling  agreement. 

Very  nearly  all  the  emeralds  mined  in  the  world 
come  from  Colombia.  It  is  little  known  that,  in  spite 
of  the  popular  idea  that  diamonds  are  the  most  precious 
of  stones,  carat  for  carat,  emeralds  of  adequate  purity 
attain  much  higher  prices  than  diamonds. 

Emerald  mining  in  Colombia  much  antedates  the 
time  of  the  Conquistadores,  and  it  is  only  a  century 
after  the  conquest  of  Colombia  that  the  Spaniard 
discovered  the  source  of  the  stones  which  the  natives 
wore  as  ornaments.  The  exploitation  of  emerald  mines 
is  a  Government  monopoly,  subleased  to  British  and 
American  mining  companies.  Owing  to  the  inacces- 
sibility of  the  deposits,  mining  operations  are  of  the 
most  primitive  nature. 

Coal,  ranging  from  lignite  to  bituminous,  is  found 
in  various  parts  of  Colombia,  and  developments  would 
have  permitted  the  country  to  become  self  sufficient, 
were  there  better  means  of  communication  between 
one  section  and  another.  Although  yet  practically 
in  its  infancy,  those  who  have  coal  interests  in  Colom- 
bia claim  that  ere  many  years  pass  the  country  will 
become  an  important  coal  producer,  supplying  not 
only  all  its  needs,  but  also  those  of  a  large  part  of 
other  countries  of  the  Americas  and  of  the  West 
Indies. 

There  are  quite  a  number  of  gold  mining  enter- 
prises in  Colombia  and  the  gold  mining  possibilities 

69 


of  that  country  are  probably  unsurpassed  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere. 

In  Spanish  times,  Colombia  produced  much  copper, 
but  its  production  has  practically  ceased. 

Fine  hematite  iron  ore  has  been  located  not  far 
from  Bogota,  but  absence  of  an  iron  industry  leaves 
these  deposits,  as  yet,  useless. 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 

Unfortunately,  navigation  on  the  Magdalena  River, 
the  principal  artery  of  traffic  of  Colombia,  is  much 
hampered  by  shifting  sands  along  its  course,  and  es- 
pecially at  its  mouth,  preventing  ocean  vessels  from 
reaching  Baranquilla.  Various  projects  for  break- 
waters, which  would  cause  the  river  to  scour  and  main- 
tain its  own  channel,  have  been  under  consideration 
for  years.  None  was  executed  because  of  the  uncer- 
tainty that  the  expenditure  of  several  millions  would 
achieve  the  desired  end. 

There  are  some  1,000  miles  of  railroads  in  Colombia, 
most  of  which  are  isolated  lines,  without  connections 
with  one  another,  mountain  ranges  preventing  their 
junction.  However,  a  comprehensive  railroad  pro- 
gram is  progressing  normally  and  it  will  not  be  many 
years  until  one  may  be  able  to  ride  from  the  Venezuelan 
border  to  Buenaventura  on  the  Pacific,  and  from 
Baranquilla  to  Bogota  and  into  the  far  interior. 

70 


THE  WONDERFUL  CAUCA 

Probably  the  most  interesting  part  of  Colombia,  is 
that  which  we  are  leaving  east  of  our  course,  namely 
the  Cauca.  Its  port  is  Buenaventura,  which,  at 
one  time,  had  as  bad  a  reputation  as  Guayaquil,  and 
still  has  that  of  being  the  place  where  it  rains  more 
heavily  and  more  often  than  anywhere  in  the  world, 
though  the  record  is  probably  due  to  the  Island  of 
Dominica,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

The  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  Cauca  are  great, 
there  are  there  yet,  many  thousand  acres  of  practically 
level  and  unusually  fertile  land  awaiting  rational 
cultivation.  Sugar  and  cotton  especially  are  very 
promising  crops.  Moreover,  the  Cauca  is  probably 
the  largest  as  yet,  practically  undeveloped  placer  gold 
field  in  the  World.  Many  men  of  many  nationalities 
wash  gold  there  in  a  small  way,  but  no  large  dredging 
enterprises  have  yet  been  found  practicable  or  success- 
ful. 

The  people  of  El  Valle,  as  the  Cauca  is  called,  are 
averse  to  Iarg5  foreign  capitalistic  enterprises  which 
would  disturb  their  quiet,  comfortable  way  of  living, 
and  would  make  many  of  their  men  the  near-slaves  of 
capitalists  and  many  of  their  daughters  their  servants. 
To  the  stranger,  who  wonders  at  their  lack  of  progress- 
ive aggressiveness,  they  reply,  "the  gold  will  not  get 
bad,  by  remaining  a  few  years  longer  in  the  sand." 
They  say:  "we  do  not  wish  mining  booms  such  as  you 

71 


have  had  in  the  United  States,  with  their  disastrous 
moral  consequences."  Indeed,  while  permits  to  wash 
gold  by  primitive  methods  are  easily  obtainable,  li- 
censes for  the  importation  of  large  mining  machinery 
demands  the  undergoing  of  much  red  tape  and  delays 
and  it  has  more  than  once  happened  that  when  a  stran- 
ger finally  succeeded  in  overcoming  all  difficulties, 
and  was  about  to  set  up  his  machinery,  either  himself 
or  the  latter  disappeared  in  the  river  through  unforseen 
accidents. 

A  RAILROAD  AND  A  CURSE 

The  Cauca  Railway  (Pacific  Railway  Co.)  has  an 
interesting,  one  might  almost  say,  dramatic  history. 
In  the  60 's,  a  French  company  obtained  a  concession 
for  a  railroad  to  Cali  and  actually  began  construction 
work,  which  was  interrupted  by  the  Franco-Prussian 
War. 

When  building  operations  were  resumed,  legend  has 
it  that  a  little  priest  cursed  the  undertaking,  and  pre- 
dicted that  no  trains  would  run  during  the  generation. 
Since  then,  Colombian,  American,  British  and  French 
companies  have  successively  resumed  and  abandoned 
construction  work  for  one  reason  or  another,  always 
something  "happening"  to  prevent  the  completion  of 
the  line. 

It  is  only  in  1919  that  the  line  was  opened  first  to 
Cali  (108  miles);  later  to  Popayan  (21  miles),  from  which 

72 


it  will  ultimately  be  extended  to  Pasto  and  the  Ecua- 
dorean  border  and  finally  join  the  Ecuador  railways. 
From  Cali,  a  spur  has  been  completed  to  Palmira 
(16  miles),  and  it  is  being  continued  towards  Ruga, 
Tuluma  and  Cartago. 

From  there,  the  line  will  be  carried  through  the 
Quindio  valley  and  across  the  Central  Cordillera  to 
Ibague,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Tolima,  where 
connection  will  be  made  with  the  Tolima  Railway. 
When  this  line  will  be  completed,  probably  in  1923, 
a  through  railroad  route  will  be  opened  from  Buena- 
ventura and  Bogota  and  indeed,  the  Colombian  capital 
will  at  times,  be  reached  more  quickly  via  that  route 
than  via  Baranquilla  and  the  Magdalena  River. 


73 


A  LITTLE  PARADISE 

Popayan,  one  of  the  present  terminals  of  the  Cauca 
Railway,  is  wonderfully  located.  The  region  was  de- 
scribed by  both  von  Humboldt  and  by  Boussingault, 
as  the  Paradise  of  America.  Hardly  anywhere  in  the 
world  are  to  be  found  within  a  small  area  as  great  a 
variety  of  scenery,  sub-tropical  vegetation,  fertile 
plain,  mountain  forests  and  rocky  bluffs,  the  whole 
surrounded  by  a  crown  of  snow  capped  peaks,  one  of 
them,  the  Purace  volcano,  in  almost  constant  eruption. 

The  climate  of  Popayan  has  already  been  described 
as  even  surpassing  that  of  Mexico  City. 

A  DIFFERENT  MENTALITY 

If  the  people  of  the  Cauca  are  conservative  and  de- 
cidedly averse  to  intensive  development,  as  understood 
in  the  United  States,  there  are  both  economic  and  his- 
torical reasons  for  it. 

A  man,  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  that  part  of  Co- 
lombia, who  had  traveled  much,  told  me  quite  frankly: 
"Yes,  it  is  wonderful  what  Americans  have  done  with 
the  Island  of  Porto  Rico;  however,  the  "peons"  are  not 
working  less  under  "Yanqui"  masters  than  they  are 
under  previous  land  owners.  On  the  contrary,  they 
enjoyed  more  freedom  under  the  former  system.  As 
concerns  the  whites,  there  were  hundreds  of  families 
in  Porto  Rico  living  from  a  few  acres  in  sugar  or  coffee, 
which  they  called  "estate,"  and  able  to  indulge  in  the 

74 


practice  of  art  and  literature,  or  the  study  of  sciences, 
but  now  have  to  drudge  for  a  living." 

This  may  not  be  exactly  correct.  At  any  rate,  it  tells 
only  one  side  of  the  story  of  improvements  in  Porto  Ri- 
co. Nevertheless,  it  seems  to  be  the  view  which  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Cauca  take  of  possible  American  "invasion." 

The  historical  reason  for  their  conservatism  is  that 
their  ancestors,  in  the  18th  century,  left  the  turmoil  of 
the  coast,  70  families  strong,  and  went  to  live  in  the 
wonderful  Cauca  Valley  in  order  to  escape  the  con- 
tinuous warfare  of  so-called  civilization  along  the 
coast.  They  desired  to  be  left  alone  and  this  desire, 
this  tendency  has  remained  among  their  descendants. 

Yet  the  people  of  the  Cauca  are  far  from  being  ig- 
norant and  narrow  in  their  views.  Popayan  boasts  of 
the  second  oldest  higher  institution  of  learning  in  the 
New  World,  and  one  finds  in  the  Cauca,  probably, 
a  larger  proportion  of  really  interesting  and  cultured 
people  than  almost  anywhere  in  a  community  of  that 
siz;  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

An  expert  in  Cauca  matters,  always  glad  to  give  in- 
formation on  its  resources  and  opportunities,  is  Mr. 
Emile  Bizot,  a  resident  of  Cali,  the  principal  city  of  the 
Cauca. 

The  Cauca  has  given  to  Colombia  many  of  its  great 
men.  Popayan  was  the  native  place  of  the  author  of 
"Maria,"  which,  Spanish-Americans  claim,  is  one  of 
the  two  or  three  greatest  pieces  of  literature  the  Ameri- 
cas have  produced. 

75 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE  SWITZERLAND   OF  AMERICA 

Ecuador  has  been  called  the  Switzerland  of  South 
America,  because  of  the  picturesquensss  and  grandeur 
of  its  scenery.  It  occupies  a  nearly  three-cornered  ter- 
ritory from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Upper  Valleys 
of  the  Amazon,  with  Colombia  in  the  north  and  Peru 
in  the  South.  The  boundaries  being  in  dispute  with 
its  three  neighbors,  no  two  authorities  agree  as  to  the 
exact  extent  of  its  territory  and  its  population.  They 
are  usually  given  at  about  120,000  square  miles  and 
a  million  and  a  half  inhabitants. 

The  climate  of  Ecuador  naturally  varies  according 
to  altitude.  At  Guayaquil  the  average  annual  tem- 
perature is  76  degrees  and  the  rainfall  91  inches,  mainly 
during  the  months  of  January  and  February. 

At  Quito,  the  average  temperature  is  55  with  a 
maximum  of  69  and  a  minimum  average  of  46.  The 
average  rainfall  at  Quito  is  49  inches. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  few  foreigners  en- 
gaged in  business,  the  people  of  Ecuador  consist  of 
three  classes — Indians,  halfbreeds,  and  whites.  The 

76 


Indians  constitute  the  overwhelming  majority  of  the 
people  and  are  the  agricultural  and  unskilled  laborers  of 
the  country.  The  half-breeds  are  the  mechanics,  serv- 
ants, and  small  traders.  Farm  wages  range  from  5  to 
15  cents  a  day,  and  Government  wages,  paid  to  those 
working  on  the  Government  railroad  are  from  30  to 
40  cents  a  day.  There  are  possibly  80,000  people  in 
Quito,  80,000  in  Guayaquil,  30,000  in  Cuenca,  14,000 
in  Riobamba,  12,000  in  Latacunga,  10,000  in  Loja,  and 
from  6,000  to  9,000  each  in  Ambato,  Esmeraldas, 
Guaranda,  and  Ibarra.  Few  of  the  cities  and  towns 
have  assumed  important  as  yet. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 

The  mineral  resources  of  Ecuador  are  probably 
quite  as  great  as  those  of  Colombia,  Peru,  Bolivia  and 
Chile,  but  no  systematic  survey  has  ever  been  at- 
tempted. However,  considerable  prospecting  has  been 
done  both  by  individuals  and  by  geologists  paid  by 
the  Government,  but  ac':ual  development  has  remained 
very  far  behind  that  of  other  west  coast  countries. 

Until  the  war-time  and  the  post-war  search  for  new 
sources  of  supply  of  fuel  oil,  no  one  thought  that  Ecua- 
dor might  become  one  of  the  great  petroleum  pro* 
ducing  countries.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  first  oil 
company  of  Ecuador,  the  Ancon  Oil  Company,  founded 
by  Ecuadoreans,  with  British  and  French  capital  and 

77 


technical  management,  and  also  the  Ecuador  Drilling 
Company,  whose  capital  was  subscribed  by  the  share- 
holders of  the  former,  suspended  operations  in  1913, 
because  it  did  not  pay,  and  because  additional  capital 
to  continue  development  work  was  unobtainable.  A 
curious  fact  is  that  the  refining  plant  of  these  companies 
continued  operation  for  a  time  mainly  for  the  pro- 
duction of  asphalt. 

The  coast  we  are  passing  now,  and  especially  the 
region  of  Esmeraldas,  r^«lh  of  it,  are  rich  in  oil,  but  the 
best  known  deposits  are  in  the  region  of  St.  Elena, 
near  Santa  Elena  Point,  which  we  pass  some  eight 
hours  after  Cape  Pasado.  This  region  is  roughly  90 
miles  from  Guayaquil,  and  750  miles  from  Panama. 
The  geological  strata  and  conditions  are  said  to  be 
similar  to  the  Peruvian  fields.  Indications  of  oil  have 
also  been  found  in  the  southernmost  province  of  Ecuador, 
that  of  Loja. 

Ecuador  possesses  important  coal  measures,  but 
only  small  quantities  of  lignite  are  mined  at  Biblian, 
near  Cuenca,  southwest  of  Guayaquil,  across  the  Cor- 
dillera. These  coal  fields  will  soon  be  reached  by  a 
branch  railroad  and  presumably,  normal  exploitation 
will  then  begin.  Technical  difficulties  have  thus  far 
prevented  the  exploitation  of  highly  inclined  coal  beds 
along  the  Guayaquil -Quito  R.R.  and  other  coal  strata 
which  present  more  favorable  conditions  for  working 
are  too  far  from  existing  means  of  communications  to 
be  interesting. 

78 


Both  hematite  and  magnetic  iron  ore  of  remarkable 
purity  have  been  located  in  the  provinces  of  Chim- 
borazo,  Loja  and  Pichincha,  but  are  not  worked. 
Gold,  silver,  manganese  and  platinum  are  mined 
in  small  quantities,  while  deposits  of  mercury,  zinc, 
lead,  mica  and  sulphur  have  been  determined  but 
are  not  worked. 

AGRICULTURE 

With  the  exception  of  the  region  around  Quito, 
Agriculture  in  yet  in  a  very  primitive  stage,  and  until 
recently  progress  has  been  extremely  slow.  Thus  far, 
few  settlers  from  Europe  have  come  to  that  country, 
but  with  the  present  efforts  of  the  authorities,  and  the 
co-operation  of  British,  French,  Italian  and  even 
Chinese  capital  and  initiative  which  began  to  interests 
itself  in  Ecuador's  possibilities,  greater  progress  is 
expected. 

Formerly,  the  world  was  largely  dependent  upon 
Ecuador  for  its  requirements  in  cocoa,  but  very  large 
increase  in  acreage  of  West  Africa,  Venezuela  and  the 
West  Indies,  has  become  a  hard  competition.  The 
cocao  industry  employs  directly  or  indirectly  a  rela- 
tively large  proportion  of  the  population,  and  a  number 
of  joint-stock  companies  have  from  time  to  time  been 
formed  to  carry  on  the  raising  of  the  product  on  an 
extensive  scale.  Two  of  the  largest  companies  are 
German,  working  the  Seminario,  Puga,  and  Clementina 

79 


Estates.  Some  of  the  plantations  are  under  British 
control,  and  the  remainder  are,  for  the  most  part, 
locally  owned. 

The  "Asociacion  de  Agriculutores"  has  for  several 
years  absolutely  controlled  prices. 

Tagua  (Ivory-nuts)  has  been  for  years  of  very  great 
economic  importance  to  Ecuador.  The  tagua  shipped 
from  Esmeraldas  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
in  the  world. 

The  cadi  is  the  tagua  or  ivory-nut  tree,  often  referred 
to  by  English-speaking  people  as  vegetable  ivory,  and 
by  Latin  Americans  as  coroza  nuts.  This  forest  product 
has  proved  to  be  an  excellent  raw  material  for  making 
buttons,  novelties,  chessmen,  and  other  articles  that 
previously  were  manufactured  from  bone,  ivory,  and 
similar  hard  substances.  It  grows  wild  in  the  forests, 
and  the  cost  of  production  involves  only  the  work  of 
gathering  and  transportation.  Of  the  world's  total 
output  Ecuador's  contribution  is  estimated  to  reach 
nearly  four -fifths.  There  are  unmeasured  forest  areas 
where  the  tagua  has  never  been  gathered.  In  the 
Province  of  Manabi,  it  is  said,  60  per  cent  of  Ecuador's 
ivory-nut  exports  originate.  Other  Provinces  in  which 
tagua  is  gathered,  in  the  order  of  their  importance, 
are  Esmeraldas,  and  Guayas.  Up  to  this  time  no  in- 
dustries for  manufacturing  articles  from  tagua  have 
been  started  in  Ecuador.  It  has  been  rumored,  how- 
ever, that  a  license  has  been  granted  for  establishing  a 
modern  button  factory  in  Manabi. 

80 


TAGUA  AND  CHINESE  HONESTY 

Some  90  miles  north  of  Cape  Pasado,  lies  the  little 
port  of  Esmeraldas,  from  which  most  of  the  Ecuado- 
rean  tagua  (ivory  nut?.)  is  exported.  Tagua  is  the 
seed  of  a  palm,  growing  scattered  in  the  valleys  of  the 
interior.  It  is  collected  by  Indians  and  brought  to 
the  coast  in  part  on  men's  backs  or  in  canoes  and 
balsas. 

These  balsas  are  made  in  some  regions  of  reed,  or 
palm  leaves  solidly  interwoven  so  as  to  make  the 
craft  watertight,  but  more  often  of  balsa  wood,  which 
is  the  lightest  wood  in  the  world.  When  one  has  seen 
these  balsas,  one  can  understand  how  the  Pacific  islands 
were  populated  and  grasp  the  possibility  of  migrations 
from  the  American  Continent  to  Asia,  if  not  vice  versa. 

But,  to  come  back  to  Tagua,  the  article  was,  for 
some  years,  so  much  in  demand  that  European,  Ameri- 
can, and  even  Japanese  manufacturers  had  their  resi- 
dent buyers  in  Esmeraldas  and  other  Ecuadorean  ports. 
These  often  paid  for  the  coming  crop  months  ahead 
and  at  times  as  much  as  nearly  one  year  in  advance. 
At  the  beginning,  many  nationalities  were  engaged  in 
the  trade  of  bringirg  tagua  to  the  coast,  but,  finally, 
only  the  Chinese  were  found  honest  enough  to  be 
trusted  with  huge  sums  of  money. 

A  few  miles  north  of  Cape  Pasado,  lies  the  town  of 
Monte  Crist i,  where  the  finest  and  most  durable 
so-called  panania  hats  are  made  from  the  leaves  of 

81 


the  Toquilla  plant,  locally  better  known  as  Jipi-Japa 
fiber. 

Rice,  cotton  and  sugar  cane  could  as  successfully 
be  grown  in  Ecuador  as  in  her  southern  neighbor,  Peru, 
but  thus  far  production  has  rcrcsried  small. 

Although  there  are  considerable  areas  that  might 
be  used  for  pastoral  purposes,  the  development  in 
this  field  has  been  comparatively  slow.  A  small  number 
of  horses  and  mules  are  exported,  as  well  as  some  hides. 
Practically  all  of  the  wool  clip  and  meat  supply  are 
consumed  in  the  country. 

The  forest  resources  of  the  Amazon  region  of 
Ecuador  are  as  great  as  that  of  her  neighbors,  but  as 
yet  practically  unexploitable  because  of  total  lack  of 
means  of  communications. 

Ecuador  is  the  home  of  the  cinchona  tree  and  of 
numberless  medicinal  plants;  when  attention  is  pro- 
perly directed  to  this  source  of  national  wealth,  a 
large  number  of  these  plants  will  be  placed  under 
cultivation,  with  benefit  to  the  grower  as  well  as  to  the 
world  in  general. 

Many  curious  and  valuable  Ecuadorian  vegetables 
and  fruits  at  present  unknown  to  the  American  table 
are  being  investigated  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  much  of  the  fruit  consumed 
in  Lima  and  other  Peruvian  cities  is  imported  from 
Ecuador. 

One  of  the  most  notable  plants  of  Ecuador  is  the 
82 


toquilla,  which  resembles  a  palm,  but  belongs  to  an 
entirely  different  family,  the  Cyclantaceae.  It  furnishes 
the  straw  for  Panama  hats,  the  most  valued  manu- 
facturing industry  of  the  Republic,  the  exports  of 
which  amount  annually  to  over  $1,000,000.  It  is 
claimed  that  Ecuador  originated  this  form  of  hat,  and 
although  similar  manufacture  is  carried  on  extensively 
in  near-by  districts  of  Peru,  in  western  Colombia  and 
several  other  South  American  countries,  Ecuador  furn- 
ishes nearly  all  the  toquilla  straw  and  Ecuadorians  have 
been  called  on  as  instructors.  Native  weavers  in 
Ecuador  refer  to  the  toquilla  straw  as  cuencas. 

The  weavers  do  their  work  by  hand  in  the  early 
morning  because  the  greater  atmospheric  humidity  at 
that  time  makes  the  straw  more  pliable  and  readily 
manipulated.  Weaving  under  water,  which,  outside 
of  Ecuador,  seems  to  be  generally  considered  essential 
in  making  Panama  hats,  is  not  generally  practised  in 
the  Republic. 

Another  straw  commonly  used  by  hat  weavers  is 
called  gualaginzas,  brownish  in  color,  secured  in  greatest 
amounts  from  forests  east  of  the  Andes.  This  class 
of  hats,  although  darker,  is  in  demand  by  the  natives 
owing  to  the  greater  resistance  of  the  fiber.  The 
Province  of  Azuay  is  the  center  of  the  hat  industry. 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 

Ecuador's  only  important  railway,  that  which  con- 
nects Guayaquil  with  Quito  was  built  by  Archer  Har- 

83 


mon,  an  American.  The  construction  was  begun  in 
1897  and  the  line  finally  opened  to  traffic  in  June,  1908. 
The  road  measures  462.2  kilometres  (287.5  miles)  from 
the  starting  point.  Duran  opposite  Guayaquil,  to  the 
Quito  terminus.  The  gauge  is  J  feet  6  inches,  and  the 
highest  point  is  Urbina,  with  an  elevation  of  11,841  feet 
above  the  sea.  Beyond  Huigra  is  the  most  steep  section 
of  the  line,  with  curves  of  29  degrees  and  gradients 
of  4  per  cent.  This  railroad  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting in  the  world. 

The  other  railways  of  Ecuador,  of  a  total  milage  of 
less  than  300  miles,  are  unimportant,  and  even  if  all 
serious  railroad  projects  were  realized,  the  railroads  of 
the  country  would  not  exceed  600  miles. 

The  most  important  recent  railroad  and  develop- 
ment project,  is  that  of  an  Italian  Commission,  of  some 
twenty  experts,  which  spent  several  months  in  Ecuador 
during  1920  and  1921. 

The  projected  line  would  start  at  Puerto  Bolivar, 
the  port  for  Machala  south  of  Guayaquil,  and  the  first 
section  run  to  Meso.  from  there,  one  trunk  line  would 
go  north  to  Cuenca  and  then  join  the  Rio  Pastaza,  an 
affluent  of  the  Maranon.  The  southern  trunk  line 
would  serve  Loja  and  have  its  terminal  at  Borja.  An 
Ecuadorean  syndicate  is  working  in  co-operation  with 
the  Italians, and,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  syndicate 
of  Chilean  capitalists  has  also  interested  itself  in  the 
undertaking.  They  intend  beginning  operations  at 
once. 

84 


The  gold  standard  unit  in  Ecuador  is  the  "sucre," 
legally  fixed  at  $.487  U.  S.  cy.,  or  2  shillings,  ten  sucres 
being  equal  to  £1  st.  Coins  in  use:  Gold  piece  of  10 
sucres  called  'Condor'  and  silver  pieces  of  1-2,  1-5,  1-10 
and  1-20  of  sucre.  No  paper  currency. 


A  CITY  WHICH  IS  DIFFERENT 

A  tropical  city  of  South  America  which  is  different 
from  any  other  is  Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador. 
Located  9343  feet  above  sea  level  on  a  plateau  114 
miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  this  sleepy  old  city  is  of 
little  commerical  importance,  but  is  interesting  from 
the  historical  standpoint  and  as  an  example  of  medieval 
life  surviving  at  the  present  day.  It  has  about  60,000 
people  who  live  in  houses  betraying  more  definite  marks 
of  Spanish  and  Moorish  influence  than  any  other  city 
in  the  Americas,  and  is  cooler  than  many  places  a 
thousand  miles  farther  north  or  south. 

Quito  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world.  It  was 
a  city  of  temples  and  palaces  and  contained  vast 
treasures  which  were  buried  by  the  Indians  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  conquest  in  order  that  they  might  not 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  But  notwith- 
standing the  many  changes,  the  town  itself  has  pre- 
served its  own  landmarks  and  customs,  on  account  of 
the  large  population  of  Indians. 

85 


So  much  does  a  traveler  hear  to  the  detriment  of 
Guayaquil  before  arriving  that  it  is  not  unnatural  for 
him  to  enter  the  Republic  for  the  first  time  with  a 
decided  prejudice.  But  in  development,  cleanly  ap- 
pearance, and  other  respects  the  city  now  compares 
most  favorably  with  cities  of  other  west-coast  South 
American  countries,  while  conditions  of  living  and 
facilities  for  transacting  business  are  far  better  than 
reports  would  lead  one  to  anticipate. 

Guayaquil  was  to  the  Western  Hemisphere  what 
Port  Said  was  to  the  Mediterranean,  namely,  so  to  say, 
a  personified  pest  hole,  but,  now  it  may  be  considered 
for  all  times  free  from  epidemics  of  the  many  tropical 
diseases  which  gave  it  such  ill  fame. 

This  has  been  accomplished  by  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation,  in  co-operation  and  with  the  help  of  the 
authorities,  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties,  among  which 
was  the  indifference  and  even  the  antagonism  of  a 
portion  of  the  Indian  and  half-breed  population. 

The  "marina"  or  quay  wall  has  been  constructed 
along  the  shore  of  the  river  for  a  considerable  distance 
Extending  backward  is  a  broad  area  along  which  a 
large  maritime  traffic  is  received  and  dispatched.  The 
port  proper  is  about  3  miles  long  and  from  a  half  to  a 
mile  broad,  with  a  depth  of  from  12  to  40  feet. 

The  city,  of  course,  has  its  modern  side,  as  fine  mod- 
ern buildings,  carriages,  electricity,  telephones  and 

86 


good  hotels.  It  has  splendid  churches,  a  cathedral,  an 
opera  house  and  a  park-promenade.  But  the  modern 
side  of  the  city  is  not  half  so  interesting  as  the  old 
architecture  and  the  picturesque  natives.  The  various 
Indian  tribes,  the  small  houses  with  their  Old  World 
little  balconies,  the  narrow  city  streets,  offer  the  traveler 
quite  an  attractive  sight. 

Quito  is  the  seat  of  the  Government,  the  Episcopal 
Palace  and  the  National  University. 

GUAYAQUIL  IS  THE  METROPOLIS 
OF  ECUADOR 

Guayaquil  is  located  70  miles  up  the  Gulf  of  Guayas 
and  the  estuary  of  the  Guayas  River.  The  five  hour 
sail  from  the  open  ocean,  if  the  vessel  has  proceeded 
from  the  rainless  coast  of  Chile  and  Peru,  offers  de- 
lightful contrasts  in  beautiful  tropical  foliage  and  pic- 
turesque surroundings. 

Guayaquil  is  the  metropolis  of  Ecuador.  So  largely 
does  the  commercial,  and  political  life  center  there 
that  travelers  often  say  "Guayaquil  is  Ecuador."  Over 
the  docks  of  this  city  more  than  85  per  cent  of  the 
Republic's  imports  are  entered  and  distributed  inland, 
while  of  the  country's  total  exports  90  per  cent,  mostly 
carried  out  from  the  interior,  are  credited  as  cleared 
from  this  port. 

The  harbor  of  Guayaquil  delights  the  average  traveler 
with  its  number  of  small  sailing  vessels,  many  of  which 

87 


have  the  appearance  of  oriental  form  and  life  and  which 
transport  to  Guayaquil  a  vast  quantity  of  natural 
products  gathered  by  natives  in  tropical  forests  along 
the  streams  mentioned. 


SMALLER  PORTS 

The  more  northern  ports  of  Ecuador  are  Manta, 
Bahia,  and  Esmeraldas.  From  each  of  these  ports 
considerable  quantities  of  raw  products  are  shipped 
annually,  but  as  yet  it  is  necessary  to  load  cargo  by 
the  old  method  of  the  small  boat  and  lighter. 

At  each  of  these  ports,  short  railways  make  at  least 
a  start  toward  the  interior.  The  plans  are  to  continue 
them  toward  Quito  and  eventually  to  carry  them 
across  the  mountains  into  the  Amazon  region. 

Except  Quayaquil  and  Quito,  there  are  few  places 
of  importance  in  the  Republic. 

We  are  due  at  Cape  San  Lorenzo,  some  three  hours 
after  passing  Cape  Pasado.  Some  five  hours  later,  we 
should  pass  Santa  Elena  Point,  mentioned  above, 
where  we  begin  to  cross  the  Bay  of  Guayas 


A  SHORTLIVED  NEW  STATE 

We  leave  some  500  miles  to  the  west  the  famous 
Galapagos  (turtle)  islands,  which  were  often  mentioned 

88 


in  the  press  as  possible  German,  British,  Japanese  and 
American  naval  bases.  The  fact  is  that  no  Govern- 
ment of  Ecuador  would  survive  one  hour  the  news  that 
their  alienation  to  a  foreign  power  is  as  much  as  con- 
templated. Hence,  the  stories  may  just  as  well  have 
a  rest. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  to  remind  the  reader 
that,  a  few  years  ago,  there  were  press  stories  of  a 
"revolution"  of  the  Galapagos  and  the  formation  of 
an  independent  Government  which  placed  itself  under 
the  protectorate  of  the  United  States.  There  was  some 
foundation  to  the  story.  An  American  seafaring  man 
had  settled  on  the  Galapagos,  acquired  a  small  fleet 
of  sailing  vessels  and  gradually  worked  up  a  monopoly 
of  trade  in  turtle  and  turtle  shells.  He  worked  so 
systematically  that  the  interesting  animals  were 
threatened  with  complete  destruction. 

The  Ecuadorean  Government  issued  rules  for  their 
protection  which  practically  put  an  end  to  the  business 
of  our  friend.  Ke  did  not  like  it,  nor  did  the  short- 
sighted natives  working  with  him,  and  he  did  not  have 
much  difficulty  in  persuading  them  to  become  free 
citizens  under  the  egide  of  Uncle  Sam,  who  would 
protect  them  without  bothering  them. 

A  gunboat  arrived  three  days  later  from  Guayaquil 
and  the  would-be  new  free  and  independent  state  was 
obliterated  a  few  minutes  after  her  arrival.  Her  com- 
mander was  considerate  enough  to  refrain  from  depriv- 
ing the  freedom  loving  American  from  his  beloved 

89 


liberty,  but  he  advised  him  very  strongly  to  favorably 
consider  a  change  of  air.  After  due  consideration, 
our  friend  "Captain"  *  *  *  decided  that  the  climate 
of  Panama  would  be  very  suitable  and  as  it  happened 
to  be  also  the  nearest  on  the  map,  he  went  and  settled 
there  and  for  several  years  operated  a  small  fleet  of 
coastwise  vessels  from  Panama  City. 


90 


CHAPTER  VII 


TOPOGRAPHY 

The  680  square  miles  of  territory  possessed  by  Peru 
are  divided  by  the  Andes  Mountains  into  three  distinct 
zones,  each  of  them  almost  a  world  by  itself.  They  are 
the  Coast  Belt,  the  "Sierra,"  which  includes  the  high 
Andes  and  the  plateaux  and  valleys  between  them, 
and  the  "Montana,"  or  that  large  territory  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Andes. 

The  first  of  these  zones,  running  along  the  coast 
line  for  a  width  of  from  20  to  80  miles,  is  arid  and  is  said 
to  have  been  rainless  for  6,000  years  or  more. 

The  second  zone,  the  Sierra,  is  formed  by  the  two 
main  chains  of  the  Cordillera,  the  Western  and  the 
Eastern  Andes,  from  90  to  120  miles  distant  from  one 
another  and  in  part  cut  up  by  the  Central  Andes. 
Between  these  is  the  Altiplano,  the  high  plateau  of 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  at  altitudes  of  from  9,000  to  13,500 
ftet. 

Geologists  estimate  that  the  Andes  and  the  high 
Andean  plateaux  were  formerly  several  thousand 
feet  lower  than  at  present.  Remains  of  mastodons, 

91 


ant  eaters  and  other  animals  are  found  at  elevations 
at  which  they  could  not  have  lived. 

RIVERS 

There  are  three  main  watersheds  in  Peru.  Some  46 
rivers,  which  all  have  their  source  in  the  Western  Cor- 
dillera flow  toward  the  Pacific,  but  most  of  them  are 
dry  before  they  reach  the  Pacific  during  the  summer 
season  and  some  of  them  even  during  the  entire  year, 
their  waters  being  taken  for  irrigation,  or  lost  through 
seepage  or  evaporation.  The  second  watershed  is 
that  of  the  Amazon.  The  third  includes  all  the  water 
originating  south  of  the  "Knot  of  Vilcanota,"  South  of 
Cuzco,  which  empty  into  Lake  Titicaca.  From  there  a 
remarkable  navigable  channel,  partly  natural,  partly 
made  by  man,  brings  these  waters  to 'Lake  Poopo, 
whence  they  flow  into  affluents  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

CLIMATE 

Geographically,  Peru  is  entirely  within  the  tropical 
zone,  namely,  between  3  and  19  degrees  south,  but  the 
peculiar  configuration  of  the  country  causes  a  great 
variety  of  climates. 

The  coastal  belt  is  naturally  the  warmest,  but,  there, 
the  temperature  is  maintained  comparatively  low  be- 
cause of  proximity  to  the'  high  Andes  and  the  Hum- 
boldt  Current  (see  page  96).  The  summer  temperature 
fluctuates  between  75  and  82  degrees,  rarely  reaching 

92 


88.     During  the  so-called  winter  months,  the  average 
temperature  is  55  with  a  minimum  of  55. 

Climatic  conditions  in  the  high  plateau  and  the 
Amazon  region  vary  greatly.  It  is  hot  in  some  of  the 
enclosed  valleys,  temperate  or  cold  on  the  high  plateau 
and,  naturally,  glacial  in  high  regions.  Winter  is  the 
season  of  heavier  rains,  from  November  to  May. 


During  the  fourth  night  out  of  Balboa,  we  cross  the 
Gulf  of.Guayas,  the  sea  outlet  of  the  Guayas  river,  the 
most  important  water  course  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
South  America.  70  miles  up  the  estuary  is  the  City 
of  Guayaquil,  and  in  the  Gulf  the  Island  of  Puna, 
where  Pizzaro  fitted  his  first  expedition  against  the 
Incas. 

On  the  southern  slope  of  the  Gulf  lies  the  little 
port  of  Puerto  Pizzaro,  where  Pizzaro  first  landed  on 
what  is  now  Peruvian  soil,  and  the  town  of  Tutnbez, 
the  northern  most  city  of  Peru.  It  was  founded  in 
1530. 

The  Tumbez  river  is  the  legal  boundary  between 
Peru  and  Ecuador,  but  it  has  several  times  changed 
its  course  during  the  last  century. 

Cape  Blanco  is  our  first  landmark.  About  7  miles 
from  it  are  the  Organ  Hills,  the  western  side  of  which 
is  said  to  resemble  the  pipes  of  an  organ. 

93 


IMMENSE  OIL  FIELDS 

10  miles  south  of  Cape  Blanco,  we  pass  the  oil  port 
of  Lobitos,  which  has  unusually  good  oil  shipping 
facilities.  An  8-inch  pipe  line  extend  along  a  3500  feet 
pier  to  an  artificial  island,  where  tankers  take  their 
cargoes  and  where  10,000  metric  tons  of  oil  may  be 
loaded  in  24  hours. 

If  we  reach  Talara  8  miles  south  of  Lobitos  before 
day  break,  we  will  see  Talara  lights,  one  red  and  one 
white,  visible  8  and  16  miles  respectively.  They  are 
exhibited  175  and  200  feet  above  water,  from  a  wooden 
structure  on  the  north  slope  of  the  hill  on  the  west 
shore  of  Talara  Bay. 

Talara  is  the  leading  oil  port  of  Peru  and,  in  point  of 
tonnage,  its  second  port. 

It  is  hardly  realized  that  Peru  has  become  the  second 
oil  producing  of  Latin  American  countries,  coming 
immediately  after  Mexico.  The  Peruvian  oil  fields 
are  mainly  exploited  by  the  London  and  Peru  Oil 
Syndicate  and  the  International  Petroleum  Co.,  of 
Canada — a  Standard  Oil  Subsidiary.  The  latter  was 
recently  reorganized  and  it  has  absorbed  the  Tropical 
Oil  Co.,  which  also  had  holdings  in  Peru. 

AN  UNJUST  ATTITUDE 

In  1919,  these  two  companies  exported  practically 
all  their  oil  without  consideration  of  the  needs  of  the 
country.  The  Peruvian  Navy  had  to  go  abroad  to 

94 


purchase  its  fuel  oil.  The  Government  brought  the 
oil  companies  to  bay  by  simply  refusing  to  clear  ships 
from  the  oil  ports,  thus  practically  shutting  down  the 
business  of  the  oil  companies  temporarily. 

It  is  said  that  it  is  mainty  the  attitude  of  these  two 
companies  which  has  actuated  the  Bolivian  Govern- 
ment in  decreeing  all  oil  drilling  a  national  monopoly. 

ENTERING  A  NEW  WORLD 

Point  Parinas,  in  Lat.  4.45  S.  and  long.  81.20  W., 
some  4  miles  south  of  Tarare,  is  much  more  than  a  mere 
landmark.  It  is  the  westernmost  point  of  the  South 
American  continent  as  well  as  the  point  of  division 
between  two  climatic  zones.  From  there,  a  line  may 
be  drawn  much  less  imaginary  than  the  equator  or  the 
tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn.  Theoretically,  the 
tropical  zone  lies  between  these  two  lines,  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn  being  just  north  of  Antofagasta,  but  in 
fact,  tropical  temperature  ceases,  along  our  course,  at 
about  the  height  of  Point  Parinas.  Were  we  to  sail 
nearer  the  coast  than  we  do,  the  change  would  be  still 
more  apparent,  especially  as  concerns  vegetation.  Bird 
and  animal  life  change.  We  will  have  no  more  flying 
fish  and  gamboling  porpoises,  but  we  shall  soon  see 
playful  sea  lions  (lobos)  and  myriads  of  Guano  birds. 

Parinas  Light  is  fixed,  visible  16  miles,  exhibited 
116  feet  above  water  from  the  western  side  of  the 
Point. 

95 


South  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayas,  as  far  south  as  Coquimbo, 
with  a  few  isolated  exceptions,  it  never,  never  rains. 
Scientists  say  that  this  region  has  been  rainless  for  the 
last  five  or  six  thousand  years.  The  explanation  for 
the  aridness  of  this  region  is  that  the  moisture  of  the 
northeast  trade,  which  blow  from  March  to  September, 
is  condensed  while  passing  over  the  Andes,  while  the 
moisture  of  the  Southwest  trades,  which  blow  during 
the  rest  of  the  year  is  condensed  while  passing  over  the 
cold  Humboldt  Current. 

Hence,  these  coast  lands,  varying  in  width  from  20 
to  80  miles,  are  absolutely  barren  and  do  not  produce 
a  blade  of  grass  without  irrigation.  Indeed,  for  many 
years  all  coast  towns  obtained  their  potable  water  by 
distilling  sea  water.  Now,  most  of  them  have  pipe 
lines  running  way  into  the  mountains.  It  is  interesting 
to  remark  that  the  very  fact  of  the  aridness  of  the 
region  has  permitted  the  accumulation  of  guano  and 
nitrates,  so  that  these  barren  lands  may  help  fertilizing 
and  producing  better  crops  in  seemingly  better  favored 
lands. 

A  REMARKABLE  SEA  CURRENT 

The  Humboldt  Current  is  the  name  given  to  the 
northern  branch  of  the  Great  Antarctic  Drift,  which 
divides  itself  on  the  coast  of  Chile,  at  about  40°  south. 
It  runs  almost  parallel,  and  mostly  within  a  few  miles 

96 


of  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Cape  Blanco,  where  it 
turns  west,  dividing  itself  among  the  Galapagos,  and 
losing  itself  in  the  Pacific. 

It  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  currents  and  to  the 
layman  it  would  seem  strange  that  its  low  temperature, 
and  that  of  the  air  about  it,  remains  constant  for  a 
course  of  some  1500  miles  with  a  temperature  much 
below  that  of  waters  around  it.  It  is  this  current, 
which  keeps  the  temperature  along  our  course  much  be- 
low tropical  averages.  Several  concurring  reasons  are 
given  as  the  cause  of  this  constant  low  temperature, 
the  essential  of  which  is  the  continual  upwelling  of 
deep  waters  by  the  current. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  Humboldt  Current  is  that,  in 
spots,  it  appears  to  run  in  the  opposite  of  its  regular 
northerly  direction.  This  southward  flow,  While  the 
normal  course  of  the  current  is  northward,  cannot  be 
explained  either  by  seasons,  age  of  the  moon,  or  any 
other  causes  known  by  science. 

The  tides  along  this  coast  rarely  exceed  6  feet  in 
spring  tide.  Heavy  storms  are  exceedingly  rare. 

THE  SOUTHERN  SKY 

As  we  near  the  equator  from  the  north,  the  first 
thing  unusual — to  us — we  observe  is  that  the  moon, 
during  the  first  quarter,  becomes  more  and  more 
horizontal,  until,  under  the  line,  its  two  ends  are  on 
the  level.  In  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  these  ends 

97 


are  turned  towards  the  left  and  not  toward  the  right 
as  we  are  accustomed  to  seeing.  At  full  moon,  we 
will  miss  the  familiar  jovial  face  of  Luna  and  instead 
behold  an  indefinite  figure  which  at  times  has  a  slight 
resemblance  to  a  mule  head,  at  others  a  rabbit. 

The  southern  sky  lacks  bright  and  conspicuous  figures 
such  as  our  Big  Dipper,  Casopeia  and  others,  and 
the  beautiful  constellations  of  Sagitarius  and  Scorpio 
are  not  as  often  seen  in  the  southern  as  in  the  northern 
Hemisphere. 

As  a  compensation, 'the  southern  sky  claims  the  most 
beautiful  and  brightest  of  all  fixed  stars,  Sirius,  also 
known  as  the  Dog  Star,  which  the  ancient  called  Alpha 
in  Canis  Major.  It  is  a  little  more  than  eight  light- 
years  away  from  our  earth,  and  usually  shines  like  a 
sparkling  diamond. 

The  southern  sky  also  claims  Canopus,  which  is  as 
bright  as  Antares  in  Scorpio.  Then,  there  is  Alpha 
Centauri,  the  fixed  star  nearest  to  the  earth,  which 
is  only  four  light-years  away,  while  the  nearest  star 
in  the  northern  Hemisphere,  Polaris  (the  north  Star) 
is  seven  light-years  distant. 

Moreover,  nowhere  in  the  sky  are  there  three  stars 
of  first  magnitude  so  close  to  one  another,  namely 
Alpha  and  Beta  Centauri,  and  Alpha  in  Cruz  (the 
Southern  Cross). 

The  Southern  Cross  is  at  first  sight  disappointing. 
It  is  brighter  than  the  Little  Dipper,  but  not  nearly 
as  conspicuous  as  the  Big  Dipper. 

98 


The  Southern  Cross  is  some  25  degrees  from  the  true 
South.  Four  of  the  stars  of  Carina  form  a  more  per- 
fect cross  than  the  Southern  Cross  and  are  often  mis- 
taken for  it. 

The  Milky  Way  appears  at  times  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere  even  more  beautiful  than  in  the  Northern, 
and  makes  it  deserve  even  more  the  apellation  River 
of  Light,  or  River  of  the  Sparkling  Dust.  It  reminds 
one  strongly  that  Milton  calls  it  "The  Way  to  God's 
Eternal  Home,"  and  that  Longfellow  makes  Hokomi 
teach  Haiwatha: 

The  Broad  white  Road  in  Heayien 

Pathway  of  the  Ghosts,  the  Shadows 

Running  straight  across  Heaven 

Probably  the  most  interesting  objects  of  the  Southern 
Sky  are  the  Greater  Cloud  and  the  Lesser  Cloud,  two 
luminous  groups  which  would  form  an  almost  perfect 
equilateral  triangle  with  the  South  Polar  Star,  where 
there  such  a  star.  Early  navigators,  who  noticed  them 
first  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  called  them  the 
Cape  Clouds,  but  they  were  later  named  the  Magellanic 
Clouds  in  honor  of  the  famous  Portuguese  navigator 
Magellan. 

The  sky  space  about  these  "clouds"  is  surprisingly 
void  of  bright  stars  as  if  the  cosmical  material  in  that 
part  of  the  heavens  had  been  swept  together  and 
gathered  into  these  two  groups. 

The  origin  and  composition  of  the  Magellantic  clouds 
and  their  relation  to  the  stellar  universe  is  an  interesting 

99 


enygma.  Spectroscopic  measurements  made  at  the 
Lick  Observatory  in  Santiago,  Chile,  indicate  that  they 
belong  to  the  30,000  light-year  group,  which  means 
that  it  takes  30,000  years  for  their  light  to  come  to 
us  and  that  we  see  than  now  where  and  as  they  were 
300  centuries  ago.  It  is  further  estimated  that  they 
move  away  from  us  at  a  speed  of  1 70  miles  per  second 
and  where  are  they  now?  Another  interesting  feature 
is  that  these  "clouds"  include  2000  or  more  stars  whose 
light  varies,  and  even  entirely  disappear  periodically. 

Are  they  universes  by  themselves,  and  are  we  viewing 
stellar  groups  similar  to  our  solar  system,  only  infinitely 
bigger  and  more  numerous? 

GUANO  BIRDS 

There  is,  as  far  as  known,  no  area  of  equal  extent 
in  the  world  with  as  large  a  seabird  population  as  the 
stretch  of  coast  between  about  Point  Parinas  and 
Arica.  Throughout  its  entire  length,  almost  always 
large  groups  of  birds  are  to  be  seen.  However  it  is 
mainly  around  the  Chinchas  (see  page  115)  and  the 
Guanapes  (see  page  110)  that  they  are  most  numerous, 
Sometimes,  they  may  be  seen  sitting  in  the  water 
peacefully,  innocently,  at  others  marching  in  long 
irregular  columns,  apparently  following  a  leader  as  if 
on  a  military  drill. 

An  interesting  series  of  articles  by  Robert  Cushman 
Murphy  on  the  bird  life  of  the  South  American  west 

100 


coast  has  appeared  in  1920  in  the  Brooklyn  Museum 
Quarterly,  from  which  the  following  information  was 
extracted. 

Among  the  various  kinds  of  birds  which  go  to  make- 
up the  fauna  of  the  sea  surface  along  the  coast,  the 
Guanay  is  the  most  important.  Guany  (Guano  Bird)  , 
is  the  name  which  the  Quechua  Indian  gave  these  birds 
from  time  immemorial.  It  has  been  said  to  be  the 
most  valuabl  e  bird  in  the  world  and  it  has  indeed  been 
called  the  "Billon  Dollar  Bird."  The  Guanay  is  a 
Shag,  or  Cormorant,  belonging  to  the  white  breasted 
branch  of  the  family  and  it  is  probably  the  most  gregari- 
ous of  all  birds.  It  breeds  upon  the  Islands  and  the 
coast  in  densely  concentrated  colonies  which  an  English 
explorer,  Coker,  has,  by  careful  measurements,  esti- 
mated to  be  often  much  over  one  million  strong  within 
the  limits  of  one  single  homogenous  colony.  Another 
explorer  Forbes  says  that  they  at  times  "congregate 
to  the  number  of  ten  millions." 

The  second  most  important  bird  of  the  region  is 
probably  the  Alcatraz,  one  of  the  largest  pelicans, 
exceeding  in  size  even  the  large  California  member  of 
the  family  reaching  an  average  weight  of  15  pounds. 
As  a  guano  producer,  it  has  ranked  close  second  to  the 
Guanay,  but  it  appears  to  have  ceded  rank  to  the 
following: 

Piquero,  in  Spanish,  means  "lancer."  It  is  the 
name  given  to  one  of  the  gannets.  It  is  a  familiar 
sight  along  the  whole  length  of  the  Humboldt  current 

101 


for  its  spectacular  plunges  into  the  sea  from  great 
heights.  The  piquero  may  be  recognized  by  its  white 
body  with  variagated  brown  wings  and  back  with 
bluish  bill  and  feet. 

In  the  Lesser  Antilles  z?.nd  along  the  coast  of  Venezuela 
bird  egg  gathering  is  carried  on  systematically  and  is 
a  profitable  business.  In  Peru,  the  collecting  and  selling 
of  any  kind  of  wild  bird  eggs  is  very  strictly  forbidden. 

Contrary  to  what  is  generally  supposed,  guano  forma- 
tion is  continuous  along  the  Peruvian  coast.  The 
largest  of  the  deposits  accumulated  during  many 
generations  of  birds  are  exhausted,  but  as  long  as  bird 
life  continues  to  be  abundant  in  these  regions,  guano 
will  continue  to  be  deposited  in  many  places  in  com- 
mercially interesting  quantities. 

The  fourth  day  out  of  Panama,  during  the  early 
part  of  the  morning,  we  should  cross  the  small  bay  of 
Paita  with  port  of  that  name. 

Paita,  in  Lat.  5.7  S.  479  miles  north  of  Callao  is 
the  port  for  Piura,  a  city  of  some  25,000  inhabitants, 
97  miles  inland  by  standard  guage  RR.  From  Piura, 
a  narrow  guage  road  runs  to  Catacoes,  the  center  of 
a  "panama"  hat  industry  which  rivals  with  that  of 
Monte  Cristi,  Ecuador. 

Paita  has  no  water  supply,  and  water  is  brought 
from  the  interior  in  tanks  or  distilled  from  sea  water. 
It  rains  in  Paita  every  eight  years  once. 

Paita  is  one  of  the  major  ports  of  Peru  and  one  of 
the  three  (besides  Mollendo  and  Callao)  having  bonded 

102 


warehouses.  In  normal  times,  it  ranks  third  among 
Peruvian  ports  in  point  of  value  of  foreign  trade.  The 
harbor  is  somewhat  better  protected  naturally  than 
the  average  west  coast  port. 


A  RAILROAD  DREAM  COMING  TRUE 

If  a  dream  should  come  true — and  it  may  really  be- 
come true — Paita  may  become  one  of  the — if  not 
THE — most  important  port  of  the  South  American 
West  Coast.  A  native  of  that  little  town  is  the  originator 
of  the  idea  of  having  fast  trains  run  direct  from  London 
to  Dakar  (via  Channel  tunnel,  when  built,)  the  western- 
most port  of  Africa.  The  trains  would  cross  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar  on  ferries. 

From  Dakar,  25  knots  steamers  would  cross  to 
Recife  (Pernambuco)  on  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
Atlantic  in  two  days  and  in  a  few  hours  reach  Belem 
(Para)  and  from  there  sail  up  the  Amazon  as  far  as 
Manaos.  From  Manaos,  equally  fast  but  shallow 
boats  would  run  to  a  point  above  Iquitos  where  the 
Maranhon  river  ceases  to  be  navigable.  This  would 
be  the  eastern  terminal  of  a  third  transandean  railway 
with  Pacific  terminal  at  Paita. 

Peruvians  claim,  with  some  justice,  to  have  absorbed 
more  of  French  culture  than  other  Spanish  American 
nations,  and  the  avowed  purpose  of  the  dreamer  of 
Paita  was  to  bringing  his  country  some  two  or  three 

103 


weeks  nearer  Paris  and,  in  point  of  time,  nearly  as 
near  as  New  York.  Incidentally,  he  thought,  this 
would  offset  the  influence  the  U.  S.  A.  was  bound  to 
gain  along  the  West  Coast  after  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal. 

The  idea  of  a  third  transandean  railroad,  with 
terminal  at  Paita  has  been  since  taken  up  by  less 
prejudiced  and  more  serious  minded  men.  The  Peru- 
vian Government  is  less  interested  in  direct  com- 
munications with  Paris  than  in  bringing  its  immensely 
rich  Amazon  territories  nearer  the  coast.  Peruvain 
engineers  have,  before  the  War,  surveyed  a  450  miles 
long  RR  line  from  Paita  to  Calentura — a  point  on  the 
Maranon  River,  where  it  becomes  navigable.  The  line 
would  cross  the  Andes  at  7000  feet  altitude  in  a  7 
kilometres  long  tunnel.  The  Peruvian  Congress  has 
passed  a  law  granting  a  subsidy  of  $30,000,000  to  a 
company  which  would  construct  and  operate  the  line, 
but  the  project  has  remained  in  abeyance  largely  be- 
cause of  war  and  post-war  conditions. 

As  concerns  the  rest  of  the  line,  surveys  made  by 
the  French  Government  show  that  a  railroad  line  from 
Tanger  to  Dakar,  using  the  existing  trunk  lines  pres- 
ents neither  engineering  nor  financial  difficulties.  Hence 
it  may  not  be  long  until  Recife  (Pernambuco)  may  be 
reached  from  London  in  five  days  instead  of  the  present 
time  requirments  of  two  weeks  or  more. 

After  crossing  Paita  Bay,  we  again  sail  with  the  land 
for  some  three  hours,  and  then  cross  the  45  miles  wide 

104 


Sechura  Bay  to  Aguja  Point,  where  the  coast  takes 
a  sudden  turn  to  the  southeast. 

Thirty  miles  further,  we  pass  Lobos  de  Tierra 
island,  where,  323  feet  above  water,  the  most  power- 
ful light  along  the  coast  is  exhibited.  It  is  visible  26 
miles  and  shows  a  group  of  two  short  flashes,  followed 
by  an  eclipse,  the  whole  within  10  seconds. 

Thirty  miles  further,  we  pass  Lobos  de  Afuera, 
another  island  whose  light  is  exhibited  237  feet  above 
water,  showing  one  flash  every  ten  seconds,  visible 
23  miles. 

Lobos,  in  Spanish,  means  seal,  and,  as  their  name 
indicates,  these  two  islands  are  the  playgrounds  for 
multitudes  of  sea  lions. 

At  about  the  height  of  Lobos  de  Afuera  lies  the  port 
of  Eten,  161  miles  south  of  Paita  and  313  miles  north 
of  Callao.  It  ranks  first  in  shipment  of  rice  among 
Peruvian  ports  and  it  is  only  second  to  Salaverry  as  re- 
gards sugar.  A  36  kilometres  long  railroad  line  of  three 
feet  guage,  opened  to  traffic  as  early  as  1874,  runs  to 
Chiclayo,  a  city  of  considerable  importance.  It  is 
operated  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation.  Another 
line  goes  to  Cayalti,  Lambayeque  and  further  inland. 
The  region  is  nearly  as  famous  as  that  of  Paita  for  its 
"panama"  hats.  The  main  town  of  Etan  is  two  miles 
from  the  port,  behind  a  promontory  640  feet  high. 

Pimentel,  8  miles  north  of  Eten,  serves  practically 
the  same  district.  It  was  at  one  time  one  of  the  im- 
portant ports  of  northern  Peru,  but,  owing  to  a  series 

105 


of  concurring  circumstances,  its  trade  has  much  de- 
clined. However,  several  large  sugar  estates  in  the 
district  are  being  developed  and  they  will,  no  doubt, 
give  some  new  trade  to  Pimentel. 

Pacasmayo,  35  miles  south  of  Eten,  290  miles  north 
of  Callao  serves  an  interesting  rice  and  sugar  district. 
A  104  miles  long  railroad  of  standard  guage  runs  to 
Calasnique  and  Chilete.  The  line  touches  Cajamarca, 
the  ancient  northern  capital  of  the  Incas.  The  ruins 
of  the  Great  Palace  of  Atahualpa  are  in  a  fair  state 
of  preservation. 

Near  Chilete  are  situated  the  most  important  lead 
mines  of  Peru. 

Pacasmayo  is  the  only  Pacific  port  through  which 
Brazilian  products  are  shipped.  Both  passenger  and 
freight  traffic  going  by  mules  from  the  Hullaga  River 
to  the  Port. 

The  town  of  Pacasmayo,  located  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Jequetepec  River,  is  one  of  the  neatest  of  northern 
Peru.  Near-by  are  the  Inca  ruins  of  Pacatnam  and 
also  the  Yonan  recks  covered  with  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions  presumably  much  antedating  the  Inca 
period. 

Malabrigo,  20  miles  south  of  Pacasmayo,  as  its 
name  indicates,  is  not  well  sheltered.  However,  port 
facilities  were  recently  terminated  and  a  new  railroad 
line  will  considerably  shorten  the  distance  between 
sugar  estates  and  Malabrigo  compared  with  via  Trujillo 
Salaverry,  so  that  port  will  soon  gain  in  importance. 

106 


It  is  yet  the  principal  shipping  point  for  large  sugar 
estates,  among  which  that  of  Casa  Grande,  which 
is  reported  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world.  The  in- 
habitants of  estate  are  said  to  number  14,000.  The 
region  of  Casa  Grande  was  a  desert  until  some  one 
discovered  an  old  Inca — or  pre-Inca — irrigation  canal 
which  was  repaired  at  little  cost  and  permitted  the 
transformation  of  this  arid  region  into  one  of  the  most 
productive  of  Peru,  and  capable  of  producing  as  much 
sugar  as  the  entire  island  of  Porto  Rico. 

Huanchaco,  formerly  important,  lost  much  through 
the  opening  of  the  Trujillo-Salaverry  railroad  and 
Tnijillo  was  made  the  center  of  a  small  system  of 
railways. 

Just  back  of  Huanchaco  is  Mount  Campana,  3500 
feet  high. 

Salaverry,  66  miles  south  of  Pacasmayo,  is  hardly 
more  than  an  open  Roadstead,  with  little  protection 
against  the  heavy  swells  prevalent  along  the  coast. 
Nevertheless,  largely  thanks  to  sugar  and  the  intensive 
agricultural  production  of  the  Chicama  and  Santa 
Catalina  Valleys,  it  has  taken  second  rank  among 
Peruvian  ports  in  point  of  value. 

Salaverry  is  also  the  shipping  point  for  the  Monte - 
bello  gold  mine,  in  the  province  of  Pataz.  It  is  owned 
by  an  Argentine  Syndicate. 

Salaverry  is  also  the  port  for  Trujillo,  12  kilometres 
away  by  rail,  a  short  distance  from  the  sea  shore  a 
sandy  beach.  Trujillo  was  founded  by  Pizarro,  and 

107 


named  from  his  native  town  in  Spain.  It  is  the  third 
City  of  the  Republic  and  the  most  important  place 
of  northern  Peru.  Its  people  are  said  to  be  among 
the  most  aristocratic  in  their  feelings  and  manners  of 
Peruvian  communities  and  it  is  proud  to  be  the  first 
Peruvian  city  to  declare  its  independence  from  Spain. 
The  province  was  named  La  Liberdad  by  Bolivar 
himsel  f . 


VERY  EXTENSIVE  RUINS 

Along  the  Salaverry-Trujillo  railway  are  very  in- 
teresting pre-Inca  ruins  visible  from  the  train.  They 
include  what  is  believed  to  have  been  a  temple  to  the 
sun,  a  pyramid  very  unlike  Mexican  edifices  of  that 
kind,  but,  in  structural  method — although  constructed 
with  huge  adobe  blocks  and  not  of  stone — rather  re- 
sembling similar  Egyptian  monuments. 

This  Pyramid  is  800  by  470  feet  at  the  base  and 
200  feet  high.  Similarly  to  the  Egyptian  pyramids, 
it  was  formerly  coated  with  stucco  of  bright  colors. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  it  has  interesting  secret  in- 
terior chambers. 

Only  three  miles  from  Trujillo,  also  near  the  coast, 
begin  the  ruins  of  the  famous  Gran  Chan  Chan. 
They  are,  with  what  is  left  of  the  great  ruins  around 
Cuzco,  the  most  curious  and  the  most  extensive  re- 
mains of  a  race  of  which  little  or  nothing  is  known. 

108 


These  ruins  are  unique,  not  merely  because  of  their 
enormous  extent — 6  by  12  miles — but  by  the  fact  that 
all  buildings  were  constructed  almost  exclusively  of 
adobe,  without  stone  masonry,  and  with  very  little 
wood.  The  sole  exception  to  adobe  construction  is  the 
great  reservoir,  of  a  capacity  of  one  billion  800  million 
gallons,  which  is  of  perfect  concrete.  Water  was 
obtained  many  miles  inland  and  carried  in  an  aqueduct 
across  the  valley  on  an  embankment  60  feet  high. 
There  were  also  secret  underground  channels  so  as  to 
insure  water  supply  in  times  of  war. 

AN  ANCIENT  POTENTATE 

The  population  of  the  Gran  Chan  Chan,  which  was 
ruled  by  the  Gran  Chimu,  is  estimated  to  have  been 
considerably  over  half  a  million.  Some  estimates  go 
as  high  as  a  million  and  a  half.  The  Gran  Chimu  ruled 
over  all  of  Peru,  as  far  south  as  Callao  and  Lima. 
The  kingdom  was  conquered,  but  not  plundered,  by 
the  Incas  about  four  generations  before  the  coming  of 
the  Spaniards,  and  the  work  of  destruction  of  this 
civilization  is  by  the  hand  of  the  white  man.  The 
civilization  of  the  subjects  of  the  Chimu  was  very 
different  from  that  of  the  Incas  and  their  predecessors 
and,  from  what  may  be  judged  from  the  ruins,  they 
must  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  culture. 

Not  a  vestige  of  tradition  has  come  down  to  us. 
We  know  the  title  given  to  their  rulers — The  Grand 

109 


Chimu— -but  we  even  ignore  how  they  called  them- 
selves. 

All  designs  and  ornaments  in  the  ruins  of  the  Gran 
Chan  Chan  are  original  and  nothing  has  been 
found  that  would  point  to  foreign  influences,  except, 
possibly,  the  structure  of  the  Pyramid. 

Their  civilization  seems  to  have  developed  spontan- 
eously, without  or  only  with  little  outside  contact  in 
the  course  of  many  centuries. 

THE  REMAINDER  OF  A  MIGHTY  RACE 

Between  Salaverry  and  Trujillo  is  a  little  Indian 
village  called  Moche  whose  people  differ  from  other 
Peruvian  Indians.  They  do  not  mix  with  the  Quechuans 
and  they  retain  old  traditions  and  are  proud  of  their 
ancient  lineage.  Presumably,  they  are  the  only  pure 
remains  of  the  formerly  great  Chimu  nation. 

At  about  8.30  latitude  S.,  we  pass  the  Guanapes,  a 
group  of  islets  which  are  the  play  grounds  for  thou- 
sands of  sea  lions.  On  the  highest,  near  the  south  end 
of  the  group,  a  light  visible  23  miles,  showing  three 
short  flashes  followed  by  a  longer  eclipse  every  10 
seconds,  is  exhibited  from  a  tower  454  feet  above  water. 

TWO  WONDERFUL  BAYS 

Some  35  miles  south  of  these  islets,  210  miles  north 
of  Callao,  lies  the  port  of  Chimbote,  which  has  been 
called  the  port  of  the  future.  At  present,  it  is  merely 

110 


the  main  outlet  for  the  Santa  River  Valley,  but  it  has 
an  agriculturally  and  minerally  very  rich  hinter-land 
It  is  the  shipping  point  for  the  estates  of  the  Peruvian 
Sugar  Co.  and  of  Tambo  Real. 

Chimb ote  has  the  advantage  of  a  landlocked  bay, 
well  protected  by  Blanco  Island  and  by  the  Ferrol 
islets.  Its  area  is  36  square  miles  without  a  single 
submerged  rock  that  could  render  navigation  dan- 
gerous. A  railroad  runs  from  Chimbote  up  the  pic- 
turesque Huailas  valley,  to  near  the  foot  of  the  Huas- 
caran,  21,822  feet  high.  This  was  first  ascended  by 
Miss  Annie  Peck,  of  New  York. 

A  few  miles  north  of  Chimbote  is  a  small  settlement 
on  Santa  Bay,  near  the  outlet  of  Santa  River,  the 
only  inter- Andes  stream  flowing  into  the  Pacific.  It 
would  be  in  part  navigable  and  the  largest  river  on 
the  west  coast  of  South  America,  were  not  its  waters 
all  taken  up  by  irrigation  long  before  they  could  reach 
the  coast. 

RUMORS  OF  AMERICAN  NAVAL  BASE 

Samanco,  10  miles  south  of  Chimbote,  shares  with 
the  latter  the  advantage  of  being  on  one  of  the  best 
natural  harbors  on  the  west  coast.  It  is  so  deep  that 
vessels  may  anchor  to  within  a  few  yards  from  shore 
and  its  waters  always  so  placid  that  they  have  been 
likened  to  those  of  a  lake.  According  to  newspaper 
reports,  a  few  years  ago,  the  U.  S.  Government  had 


offered  to  buy  the  bay  for  a  U.  S.  Naval  Base.  Samanco 
is  merely  the  shipping  point  for  sugar  and  cotton  es- 
tates, small  quantities  of  silver  are  also  shipped. 

In  about  10.30  lat.  S.  we  may  see  near  shore  the 
Pisco  de  Pativilca,  in  English  Mt.  Darwin,  a  cone 
5880  feet  high.  A  little  to  the  south  and  more  inland, 
another  distinctive  landmark,  Mt.  Osborne  is  8060 
feet  high. 

Huarmey,  the  shipping  point  for  the  Anglo-French 
Tica  Pampa  silver  mines,  served  by  a  short  narrow 
guage  railroad.  Some  salpeter  is  also  shipped  from 
Huarmey. 

The  town,  two  miles  from  the  port,  is  in  an  oasis 
surrounded  by  a  sandy  desert. 

Supe,  a  minor  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Pativilca, 
is  90  miles  north  of  Callao,  on  a  snug  little  bay  which 
cannot  well  accommodate  large  vessels.  Two  narrow 
guage  railroads  connect  sugar  and  cotton  estates  with 
the  port. 

Huacho,  70  miles  north  of  Callao,  and  connected 
with  Lima  by  rail,  was  formerly  a  rather  important 
guano  port,  but  now  serves  mainly  as  outlet  for  sugar 
and  cotton  estates.  Some  of  the  longest  staple  cotton 
is  produced  in  the  region.  The  town  of  Huacho  has 
some  15,000  inhabitants.  Important  deposits  of  coal 
and  other  minerals  have  been  proved  in  the  district 
and  interesting  developments  are  hoped  for. 

Some  50  miles  north  of  Callao,  we  pass  the  Haura 
Islands  a  14  miles  long  string  of  islets  located  west  of 

112 


Point  Salinas.  On  one  of  them,  Mazorca,  a  light 
visible  25  miles,  flashing  once  every  5  seconds,  is  ex- 
hibited 300  feet  above  water. 

Chancay,  40  m.  N.  of  Callao,  connected  by  rail 
with  Lima,  and  with  Palpa,  Huacho  and  Huara  in  the 
interior,  is  a  sugar  and  cotton  port. 

PERUVIAN  COAST  SOUTH  OF  CALLAO 

Only  few  landmarks  along  that  coast  are  worth 
mentioning.  Everywhere,  we  see  the  same  barren  ess. 
Houses  may  be  seen  on  some  isolated  spots,  but  they 
are  abandoned  shacks  of  former  guano  workers. 

About  30  miles  south  of  Callao,  lies  the  small  port 
of  Chilca,  frequented  only  by  coastwise  sailing  vessels. 
However,  the  district  has  been  found  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  construct  a  railroad  to  that  port  which 
will  be  terminated  in  1921. 

Cerro  Azul,  72  miles  south  of  Callao,  serves  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Canete,  beginning  five  miles  from 
the  port,  which  produces  long  staple  cotton  and  sugar, 
as  well  as  rum  and  by-products. 

Tambo  de  Mora,  25  miles  south  of  Cerro  Azul, 
15  miles  north  of  Pisco,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chincha 
River,  serves  the  Chincha  valley  which  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  most  fertile  of  Peru,  producing  long  staple 
cotton,  sugar  and  wine  grapes.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
region  is  the  nearest  to  the  equator  where  wine  of 
really  good  quality  is  produced  in  large  quantities. 

113 


Pisco,  the  principal  port  between  Callao  and  Mol- 
lendo,  on  Pisco  Bay,  formed  by  the  Paracas  Peninsula 
in  the  south  and  protected  by  the  Chincha  islands  in 
the  west,  is  111  miles  south  of  Callao.  It  serves  a 
fertile  hinterland  which  is  also  minerally  rich  and  it 
is  the  only  port  of  Peru  besides  Callao  from  which 
appreciable  quantities  of  gold  are  exported.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  interior  has  been  somewhat  retarded 
by  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the  formation  of  the  bay, 
Pisco  is  not  at  all  times  a  good  harbor.  The  "paracas" 
winds  blowing  from  the  direction  of  the  peninsula  of 
that  name  come  in  sudden  gusts  and  for  a  good  many 
days  in  the  year,  the  working  of  cargo  in  the  afternoon 
is  difficult  and  at  times  impossible. 

The  railroad  from  Pisco  serves  the  three  depart- 
ments of  lea,  Ayacucho  and  Huancavelica. 

lea,  74  kilometres  inland  is  a  city  of  12,000  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  a  rather  important  center  of  viticulture 
and  where  the  white  rum,  known  as  "pisco"  all  over 
Peru  and  also  in  Bolivia,  is  made.  In  the  district  are 
mineral  waters  of  proven  curative  value. 

Pisco  is  also  the  port  for  Huancavelica  and  Ayacucho 
both  some  200  miles  inland.  The  latter  is  renowned 
for  fine  filigree  work  made  there,  nearly  as  much  as 
for  the  peace  signed  there  with  Spain,  confirming  the 
independence  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Ecuador  and  Chile. 

114 


FAMOUS  GUANO  ISLANDS 

West,  slightly  to  the  north  of  Pisco  are  the  Chincha 
Islands,  a  cluster  of  peculiarly  shaped  islets  which, 
some  years  ago,  were  great  producers  of  guano.  A 
little  over  an  hour  later,  we  pass  St.  Gallan  Island, 
which  appears  as  if  it  were  part  of  the  mainland.  An 
hour  and  a  half  afterwards,  we  may  distinguish  the 
shape  of  Mt.  Wilson,  rising  almost  abruptly  from  the 
sea,  and  a  short  way  further,  Mt.  Caretas,  1400  feet 
high  appears,  forming  the  northern  protection  for  In- 
dependence Bay,  partly  closed  in  the  south  by  Vieja 
Island,  (elevation  200  feet)  followed  immediately  by 
Santa  Rosas  islets.  A  few  miles  north  of  Mount  Caretas. 
we  may  notice  the  flat  topped  Mt.  Zarate.  The  only 
settlement  in  Independence  Bay  is  the  small  fishing 
village  of  Tungo.  Immediately  south  of  Independence 
Bay,  the  form  of  Mt.  Quemado  (2070  feet)  appears. 

The  next  landmark,  less  than  two  hours  later,  is 
Dona  Maria  Point  and,  immediately  west  of  it,  are 
Los  Infernillos  (the  little  hell),  a  cluster  of  rocky  islets. 
A  few  miles  south,  we  have,  at  2160  feet  altitude,  a 
curiously  flat  topped  elevation  called  the  Table  of 
Dona  Maria. 

The  next  important  port  is  Mollendo,  but  north 
of  it  are  the  little  ports  of  Lomas  and  Chala.  The 
latter  is  the  nearest  port  to  Cuzco  by  the  land  route, 
and  in  spite  of  the  railroad  with  terminal  in  Mollendo, 
this  route  is  still  used  by  Indians. 

115 


Islay,  5  miles  north  of  Mollendo,  was  the  principal 
port  of  the  province,  until  the  railroad  to  Arequipa 
and  hence  to  the  Altiplano,  was  opened.  It  has  since 
been  deserted  and  all  its  inhabitants  moved  to  Mol- 
lendo. Islay  would  make  a  much  better  port  than 
Mollendo,  and  if  the  railroad  was  extended  that  far, 
trade  would  quickly  revive. 

POSSIBLE  ABANDONMENT  OF  MOLLENDO 

Mollendo  serves  as  port  for  Arequipa,  the  second 
city  of  Peru,  and  for  the  vast,  but  not  very  fertile 
Peruvian  Altiplano.  It  is  also  the  port  for  the  nearby 
Tambo  Valley,  which  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Peru  and 
the  first  to  produce  sugar  on  a  large  scale.  The  rail- 
road line  to  Arequipa,  and  hence  to  Juliaca,  with 
branch  to  Puno,  connecting  with  steamers  on  Lake 
Titicaca  for  the  Bolivian  side  of  the  lake  and  La  Paz, 
and  another  branch  to  Cuzco,  is  operated  by  the 
Southern  Railways  of  Peru,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Peru- 
vian Corporation.  Its  general  Manager  is  L.  A.  Blais- 
dell,  an  American.  From  Cuzco,  the  old  Inca  Capital, 
the  line  is  being  extended  toward  Santa  Ana,  on  the 
Amazon  side  of  the  Andes.  Between  Cuzco  and  Puno, 
at  Vilcanota  are  the  source  of  two  rivers,  within  one 
mile  of  one  another.  One  of  them,  the  Vilcanota  be- 
comes a  tributary  of  the  Amazon,  while  the  Tambo 
River  would  empty  in  the  Pacific,  were  not  its  waters 
all  taken  up  for  irrigation.  The  President  of  the 

116 


National  University  at  Cuzco,  is  an  American,  Dr. 
A.  Giesecke.  He  has  been  twice  Mayor  of  the  City  of 
Cuzco. 

Mollendo  is  one  of  the  worse  ports  on  the  west 
coast,  and  it  has  been  a  question  more  than  once  to 
move  its  trade  back  to  Islay,  or,  two  miles  nearer,  to 
Matarani  Cove,  where  there  is  deep  water  very  near 
the  land  and  a  port  could  be  made  at  small  cost. 

Mollendo  obtains  its  water  supply  from  Tingo,  near 
Arequipa. 

Ho  is  the  most  southerly  port  of  Peru,  75  miles 
southeast  of  Mollendo.  A  100  kilometres  long  railroad 
line  runs  to  Moquega.  It  traverses  a  district  which 
produces  grapes  and  olive  oil,  The  Government  has 
fostered  the  wine  industry  by  importing  cuttings  of 
suitable  varieties  from  France  and  employing  French 
instructors. 

The  Moquega  railroad  was  built  with  the  idea  of  ex- 
tending it  to  Lake  Titicaca  and  to  make  Ho  a  port 
for  Bolivia.  Ho  is  famous  in  Peru  for  its  white  candy 
called  "dulce  de  leche"  (sweets  of  milk). 

Some  70  miles  southeast  of  Ho,  we  will  leave  the 
Peruvian  coast  and  then  sail  with  the  coast  of  Chile. 


117 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  CITY  OF  KINGS 

Lima,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Peru,  was 
founded  by  Pizarro  and  called  by  him  "Ciudad  de  los 
Reyes"  (the  City  of  Kings).  Later,  Colonial  Vice-roys 
gave  her  the  name  of  "Tres  Veces  Coronada  Ciudad 
de  los  Vireyes"  (three  times  crowned  city  of  the  vice- 
roys). Lima — presumably  a  corruption  of  Rimac — 
was  first  a  surname,  and  subsequently  the  name  given 
to  the  City  by  the  Republic. 

Lima  is  located  7  miles  from  Callao,  at  500  feet  alti- 
tude, in  a  fertile  plain  formed  by  the  lower  valley  of 
the  Rimac  at  the  westernmort  spur  of  the  Andes. 
It  is  surrounded  by  mountains  of  a  moderate  height, 
the  most  conspicuous  and  nearest  of  which  is  the  Cerro 
de  San  Cristobal. 

Callao  is  connected  with  Lima  by  both  trolley  (every 
10  minutes)  and  train  (every  30  minutes),  and  is  the 
terminal  of  the  Central  Railway  system. 

The  center  of  Lima,  the  Plaza  Mayor,  on  which  the 
Cathedral  and  the  Presidential  offices  front,  is  one  of 
the  beautiful  squares  of  South  America.  The  Cathedral 

118 


is  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  church  edifice  in  Latin- 
American  countries.  The  corner  stone  was  laid  by 
Pizarro,  who  also  founded  San  Marcos  University,  the 
oldest  institution  of  higher  learning  in  the  Americas. 

HISTORICAL  RESIDENCE 

Next  to  the  Cathedral,  the  oldest  existing  building 
in  Lima,  and  probably  in  the  Western  Hemisphere,  is 
the  former  residence  of  the  family  Torre  Tagle,  on 
Calle  San  Pedro,  which  has  been  purchased  from  the 
family  Torre  Tagle  to  be  preserved  as  a  national 
monument  and  is  temporarily  used  by  the  Foreign 
Office.  The  Church  of  San  Francisco,  two  blocks 
from  the  Desemparados  railway  station,  is  also  a 
beautiful  edifice  dating  from  Spanish  times,  and  the 
visitor  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  take  a  stroll 
through  old  Lima's  streets  outside  of  the  path  beaten 
by  tourists  and  sight-seeing  automobiles,  will  be  amply 
rewarded  by  many  interesting  architectural  finds. 

STYLES  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

The  prevailing  style  of  architecture  in  churches  and 
the  older  public  and  private  buildings  is  Spanish  re- 
naissance (locally  called  Colonial  Style)  modified  by 
the  requirements  of  climate.  But  among  Lima's  older 
streets,  and  even  on  the  Plaza  Mayor,  are  found  ar- 
cades, with  closed  galleries  above,  and  overhanging 

119 


balconies  which,  though  different  in  many  ways,  re- 
mind one  of  Tunis  and  Cairo,  and  even  of  Rangoon 
and  Calcutta. 

The  architecture  of  modern  monumental  buildings 
and  private  residences  has  been  decidedly  influenced 
by  the  Italian  love  of  intricacy  of  lines  and  has  been 
characterized  by  most  writers  as  Greco-Roman.  New 
residences  in  the  suburbs  present  an  even  greater  va- 
riety of  design  than  similar  suburbs  in  the  United 
States. 

One  of  the  characteristics  of  old  Spanish  construction 
were  elaborate  woodcarvings  of  doors,  ceilings  and  bal- 
conies, several  examples  of  the  latter  being  seen  on 
Lima's  streets.  There  are  also  several  notable  examples 
of  beautiful  stone  carvings  on  church  facades. 

INTERESTING    RUINS 

There  are  a  number  of  Inca  and  pre-Inca  ruins  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  Lima,  practically  all  of  them 
of  huge  adobe  block  construction.  Some  of  them  are 
easily  accessible.  The  nearest  are  in  the  vicinity  of  La 
Legua  (the  trolley  station  midway  between  Callao 
and  Lima).  Beyond  two  artificial  hills  towards  the 
south  are  the  largest  ruins  near  Lima.  They  may  be 
reached  in  less  than  half  an  hour  walk  and  the  commis- 
sary of  police  of  La  Legua  usually  allows  a  soldier  to 
act  as  guide  to  strangers. 

The  most  important  ruins  near  Lima  are  those  of 

120 


Pachacamac,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Lurin, 
19  miles  south  of  Lima.  There,  Pachautec,  the  10th 
Inca  built  one  of  the  richest  palaces  of  his  empire. 
These  ruins  are  smaller  in  extent,  but  are  said  by  some 
visitors  to  be  more  interesting  than  those  of  the  Gran 
Chan  Chan. 

A  PLEA  FOR  FAIRNESS 

The  casual  visitor  to  Lima,  who,  of  course,  barely 
sees  the  surface  of  things,  is  very  likely  to  form  a  wrong 
judgment  of  Lima,  and  the  Limenians.  He  may  see 
there  merely  a  materially  enlarged,  but  intellectually 
empoverished  capital  city  of  the  American  southwest, 
dethroned  from  her  regal  supremacy,  having  lost  her 
colonial  stamp,  disfigured — rather  than  embellished,  by 
modern  outlandish  edifices,  and  marred  by  many 
seeming  instances  of  decay  and  neglect. 

However,  were  the  stranger  to  see  more  deeply; 
were  he  able  to  live  for  a  time  true  Limenian  life, 
which,  in  many  ways,  has  remained  more  "colonial" 
than  mere  appearances  disclose,  he  would  form  a  dif- 
ferent opinion  of  Lima. 

All  that  the  stranger  sees  of  Limenian  life  is  bullfights, 
horse  races,  sports  and  occasionally  an  opera  poster, 
as  well  as  some  poor  imitation  of  what  is  called  Parisian 
gay  life.  The  stranger  does  not  see,  and  does  not  know, 
that  probably  nowhere  in  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
oie  finds,  especially  in  the  family  circle,  greater  in- 

121 


terest  in  philosophy,  in  sciences,  in  literature  and  in 
arts.  Lima  certainly  equals  Bogota  and  Popayan, 
and  probably  surpasses  Caracas  in  intellectual  life. 

Lima  cannot  become  a  modern  city  in  the  sense  of 
Buenos  Ay  res,  Montevideo  or  Santiago  without  giving 
up  what  is  dearest  to  her  sons.  It  wants  to  remain 
the  "City  of  Kings"  as  far  as  compatible  with  the 
needs  of  its  modern  inhabitants. 

This  should  be  remembered  by  tourists  before  ex- 
pressing a  judgment  upon  Lima. 

JUST  A  PORT  TOWN 

Callao  was  formerly  called  down  town  Lima,  but 
its  stores  have  been  replaced  by  commonplace  ship- 
ping offices  and  the  first  impression  the  stranger  ob- 
tains from  the  city  is  not  very  favorable.  Being  merely 
a  port  town,  whose  inhabitants  are  nearly  all  port 
workers,  clerks  or  officials  and  without  any  wealthy 
class,  one  should  not  expect  Callao  to  be  beautiful. 

Nevertheless,  Callao  has  two  really  good  public 
squares,  one  right  in  the  midst  of  port  warehouses,  the 
other  in  the  center  of  shipping  offices.  It  also  has  a 
beautiful  avenue  of  stately  old  trees  which  would  be 
the  pride  of  any  city,  even  in  countries  blessed  by 
rains. 

20  minutes  by  trolley  from  Callao  is  the  watering 
place  of  La  Punta,  on  a  small  peninsula  facing  the 
Island  of  San  Lorenzo. 

12  2 


During  the  early  Spanish  times,  Callao  was  often 
subjected  to  attacks  of  Pirates.  In  1746,  an  earth- 
quake destroyed  the  town  and  practically  all  its  in- 
habitants perished.  Similarly  to  Port  Royal,  Jamaica, 
the  former  town  is  now  submerged.  The  present 
city  lies  to  the  north  of  the  old  one.  The  last  earth- 
quake happened  in  1876. 

AN  OLD  SPANISH  CITY 

Arequipa  110  miles  from  the  port  of  Mollendo  by 
rail,  on  the  floor  of  a  fertile  valley  7500  feet  above 
sea  level,  has  nearly,  100,000  inhabitants  and  is  the 
second  city  of  Peru.  It  has  retained  even  more  of 
old  Spanish  characteristics  than  Lima,  though  in  a 
less  pretentious  way.  It  is  renowned  for  its  pleasant 
living  conditions,  its  equable  climate,  and  the  agree- 
able commerce,  the  courtesy  and  the  hospitality  of 
its  people. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  sights  in  South  America 
is  the  Gran  Misti  of  Arequipa,  an  active  volcano, 
almost  a  perfect,  perpetually  snowcapped  cone  whose 
awful  grandeur  reminds  one  of  Fujijama.  It  is  20,320 
feet  high.  Its  last  eruption  was  in  1839. 

The  wonderfully  clear  atmosphere  of  Arequipa  and 
large  number  of  clear  days  and  nights  has  lead  to 
its  selection  by  Harvard  University  as  the  site  of  its 
astronomical  observatory  for  the  mapping  of  the  sky 
of  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

123 


THE  INCA  CAPITAL 

Cuzco  is  intensely  interesting  for  what  it  was 
rather  than  for  what  it  is.  Modern  Cuzco  is  quaint, 
curious,  original,  but  its  ancient  glory  has  gone  infin- 
itely more  thoroughly  than  that  of  Lima.  However, 
no  region  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  includes  rem- 
nants of  ancient  civilization  of  such  an  extent  or  of 
greater  interest. 

Near  Cuzco  are  the  ruins  of  the  fortress  of  Sacsa- 
huaman,  constructed  of  huge  stone  blocks,  brought 
from  mountains  across  a  deep  valley,  some  of  which 
measure  as  much  as  36  feet  on  each  side.  There  are 
the  remarkable  ruins  of  Ollantaytambo  and  Machu 
Picu  which  may  be  reached  in  3  to  5  days  on  horse 
back,  and  in  many  places  in  that  region  one  may  gaze 
with  amazement  upon  agriculture  and  irrigation  car- 
ried almost  to  mountain  summits.  Even  when  one 
has  been  overawed  by  the  Great  Pyramids,  the  Sphinx 
ar.d  the  ruins  of  Memphis  and  of  Thebes,  these  works 
appear  small  when  compared  with  what  ancient  Peru- 
vians have  achieved. 

A  WORLD  BY  ITSELF 

One  cannot  speak  of  Iquitos  merely  as  of  an  inland 
city,  as  of  Arequipa  or  Cuzco;  it  is  much  more  than 
than  other  places  the  heart,  one  might  almost  say  the 
concentrated  essence  of  the  Loreto  Province  of  which 

124 


it  is  the  center.  It  is  2,500  miles  up  the  Amazon. 
Like  Manaos,  some  1500  miles  downstream,  it  is  a  city 
well  started  and  never  finished.  It  began  to  grow 
nobly  and  luxuriously,  when  the  bottom  dropped  off 
the  prices  of  "Para"  rubber  and  its  dream  of  becoming 
a  gem  of  modern  civilization  in  the  midst  of  the  jungle 
was  stopped  short. 

Now,  Iquitos  appears  to  be  sleeping  and  indifferent 
to  its  fate.  Some  of  its  main  streets  are  allowed  to 
grow  sufficient  grass  to  render  their  use  as  pasture 
possible,  but  Iquitos  does  hope.  It  realizes  that  it 
is  the  hub  of  a  region  enormously  rich  which  in  the 
not  distant  future  will  be  developed  with  the  aid  of 
foreign  capital  and  technical  knowledge. 

At  one  time  Iquitos  had  40,000  inhabitants,  but 
now  it  has  less  than  half  that  number.  It  has  practi- 
cally no  economic  relations  with  the  rest  of  Peru  and 
the  only  means  of  communication  with  other  parts  of 
the  country  is  wireless  telegraphy  which  sometimes 
fails.  It  would  be  another  country  were  it  not  for 
officials  sent  from  Lima  and  deputies  and  senators 
sent  to  Lima  for  the  sessions  of  the  National  Congress. 


125 


CHAPTER  VIII 


AGRICULTURE 

Humboldt  spoke  of  Peru  as  a  beggar  sitting  on  a 
gold  hill.  This  is  decidedly  unfair  to  modern  Peru- 
vains  who  have  developed  a  considerable  proportion 
the  wealth  of  the  country.  But  it  characterizes  the 
enormous  richness  of  their  land  and  the  hugeness  of 
its  natural  resources  compared  with  the  small  propor- 
tion thus  far  developed. 

Comparatively  little  is  known  of  the  agriculture  of 
Peru  in  the  United  States.  The  "man  on  the  street" 
barely  knows  that  some  sugar  and  some  cotton  are 
exported  from  the  land  of  the  Incas  in  addition  to 
some  beans  which  are  supposed  to  come  from  Lima 
but  don't. 

The  fact  is  that  Peruvians  have  domesticated  and 
rendered  useful  to  man  a  greater  number  of  varieties 
of  plants  than  any  other  people  in  America. 

Moreover,  nowhere  in  the  known  world  has  agricul- 
tural practice  been  carried  in  as  intensified  a  manner 
as  in  the  Altiplano  which,  at  the  time  of  the  Incas  and 

126 


probably  also  before,  was  the  most  populated  part  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere.  There,  terrasing  and  irri- 
gation were  practiced  to  as  near  the  summits  of  the 
mountains  as  temperature  permitted,  and  irrigation 
methods  were  such  that  modern  technicians  fail  to  see 
how  they  could  be  improved.  Plant  adaptation  was 
brought  about  in  a  manner  unexcelled  elsewhere. 

To  this  day,  corn  in  Peru  is  grown  at  sea  level  and 
as  high  up  as  the  banks  of  Lake  Titicaca,  at  13,000 
and  even  higher  altitudes.  The  Cuzco  corn,  grown  in 
a  similar  altitude,  but  a  different  region,  is  famous  for 
the  size  of  its  grains,  equalling  the  famous  Brazilian 
"rosa.  Potatoes  are  native  of  the  high  Andes  valleys, 
but  they  are  grown  near  the  sea  shore  as  well  as  in 
the  Aroya  region,  between  13  and  15,000  feet  altitude. 
In  no  other  country  are  wine  grapes  successfully 
grown  commercially  on  as  large  a  scale  as  near  the 
equator  as  in  some  of  the  valleys  south  of  Lima. 

Cotton,  one  of  the  three  greatest  staples  of  the 
United  States  broke  all  records  in  Peru.  In  the  Canete 
valley,  south  of  Lima,  accurate  weighings  have  shown 
an  average  production  of  533  pounds  per  acre,  some 
fields  ranging  as  high  as  968  pounds  per  acre.  Near 
Lambayeque,  in  the  north  of  Peru,  one  district  has 
reached  the  very  high  maximum  average  of  1,384 
pounds  per  acre,  compared  with  a  high  average  in  our 
southern  States  of  300  pounds  per  acre. 

Cotton  is  a  plant  native  of  Peru  and  Pizzaro  found 
cotton  fabrics  in  tombs  which  much  antedate  those  of 

127 


the  Incas.  The  best  grades  are  grown  in  the  region  of 
Piura  and  shipped  from  Paita,  the  length  of  the  fiber 
coming  near  that  of  the  longest  Egyptian  cotton.  The 
high  quality  of  the  Piura  cotton  is  attributed  to  pecu- 
liarities of  soil  and  climatic  conditions. 

If  we  take  into  consideration  the  comparative  new- 
ness of  the  industry,  Peru  is  one  of  the  leading  cane 
sugar  producing  countries.  The  region  of  which 
Trujillo  is  the  center,  produces  nearly  as  much  sugar 
as  the  entire  island  of  Porto  Rico. 

Rice  has  also  received  considerable  attention,  es- 
pecially in  the  northern  part  of  the  country  and  a  large 
proportion  of  domestic  requirements  are  produced 
there.  The  varieties  planted  are  Carolina  and  Jamaica. 

An  attempt  is  being  made  by  a  company  of  Lima 
business  men  to  grow  tea  and  spices  on  an  estate  near 
Tumbez. 

The  sheep  industry  of  the  highlands  of  Peru  is  im- 
portant, and  there  are  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
great  opportunities  for  meat  production. 

IMMIGRATION 

What  Peru  lacks  is  immigrants.  It  is  one  of  the 
two  or  three  South  American  countries  where  the  tide 
of  European  immigration  has  not  yet  set  strongly. 
Unlike  other  South  American  countries,  which  look  to 
Southern  Europe  for  immigrants,  and  to  a  smaller 
extent  to  Germany,  Peru  has,  in  1920,  endeavored  to 

128 


bring  about  a  large  British  immigration.  Free  passage 
and  unusual  inducements  were  offered  to  suitable  per- 
sons, both  agriculturists  and  artisans.  Unfortunately, 
without  explanation,  the  British  government  requested 
Peru  to  discontinue  propaganda  work  in  Great  Britain. 

The  immigration  problem  in  Peru  presents  unusual 
difficulties.  The  agricultural  laborer  type  of  immigrant 
which  goes  to  River  Plate  countries  seems  unsuited 
here.  The  Germans  are  not  wanted  in  Peru  in  large 
number.  Moreover,  they  come  to  Peru  as  traders, 
not  as  workers,  and  developers. 

The  only  considerable  immigration  expected  at  pres- 
ent is  Japanese.  A  Tokio  company  has  acquired 
740,000  acres  of  jungle  land  along  the  right  bank  of  the 
Huallaga  River.  The  avowed  purpose  of  the  purchase 
is  the  exploitation  of  the  tract  of  land  and  of  the  region 
as  concerns  medicinal  and  other  plants,  but  it  is  known 
that  a  huge  colonization  scheme  is  contemplated. 

A  DIFFERENT  POINT  OF  VIEW 

It  is  well  to  state  here,  to  show  the  great  difference 
between  the  North  and  the  South  American  point  of 
view  concerning  development  of  a  country,  that  con- 
siderable immigration  in  Peru  is  opposed  by  many 
influential  men.  They  realize  that  a  large  white  im- 
migration would  improve  the  land  wonderfully  and 
make  Peru  the  richest  country  on  earth.  On  the  other 

129 


hand,  they  inquire,  would  it  make  its  inhabitants  more 
happy? 

The  Indian  who  now  does  pretty  well  what  he  pleases 
and  has  few  needs  would  finally  be  forced  to  work  regu- 
larly for  the  white  man.  He  would  develop  new  needs 
at  the  expense  of  his  present  happy  indifference. 

AGRICULTURAL  PROBLEMS 

The  most  productive  part  of  Peru  are  oasis-like 
valleys  formed  at  intervals  in  the  desert  wastes  be- 
tween the  Western  Cordillera  and  the  sea,  and  irrigated 
by  rivers  and  mountain  streams.  The  soil  in  these  val- 
leys was  formed  of  alluvion  washed  down  the  moun- 
tain sides  at  the  time  when  it  still  rained  in  the  zone. 
Naturally,  depth  and  character  of  the  soil  and  fertility 
depend  very  much,  according  to  distance  of  the  moun- 
tains from  the  valleys,  steepness  of  the  land  and 
whether  or  not  the  mountainside  was  wooded. 

As  a  rule,  these  alluvian  depcrits  are  richer  in  nitro- 
gen than  in  potassium,  and  in  phosphorus.  This  stimu- 
lates herbaceous  growth,  but  not  blooming  and  fruit- 
ing, and  in  spite  of  the  comparative  richness  of  the 
soil,  mineral  fertilizers  have  frequently  to  be  employed 
to  induce  quicker  maturity  of  the  crops. 

The  area  of  land  which  could  become  productive 
by  irrigation  and  fcr  which  water  is  available  has  been 
ccmputed  at  upward  of  50  million  acres.  Large  pro- 
jects are  pending,  only  one  of  which  is  actually  being 

130 


executed,  namely  that  of  the  Imperial  Valley.  Another 
project,  for  which  Martinelli  Bros,  of  Lima  have  a  con- 
cession, is  the  irrigation  of  20,000  acres  of  virgin  lands 
in  the  Arequipa  district.  The  Peruvian  Corporation 
has  also  various  irrigation  concessions  mainly  in  the 
northern  provinces. 

MINING 

If  there  is  a  lesson  to  be  learned  from  the  history 
of  mining  in  Peru,  it  is  of  the  instability  of  this  world's 
riches.  For  the  sake  of  gold,  great  civilizations  were 
destroyed,  and  a  vast  and  densely  populated  territory 
almost  bared  of  its  inhabitants,  and  now  the  country 
which  in  gold  richness  probably  equals  Judea  in  the  time 
of  Solomon  has  sunk  to  almost  insignificance  as  a  pro- 
ducer and  possessor  of  gold. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Peru  is  proverbial  and  it  has 
often  been  documented  by  experts.  Among  them, 
Raimondi,  who  probably  made  the  most  complete  sur- 
vey of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  Republic,  says: 
"Peru  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  richest  mineral 
countries  and  the  variety  and  abundance  of  the  miner- 
als found  in  its  territory  are  indeed  amazing." 

Bolivia  and  also  Colombia,  it  is  true,  claim  still 
greater  mineral  wealth,  but  even  if  these  claims  were 
true,  Peru  possesses  advantages  and  possibilities  of 
development  which  do  not  appear  to  be  present  in 
the  same  measure  in  these  countries. 

131 


STRANGE  REVERSAL  OF  CONDITIONS 

Before  and  during  the  early  days  of  the  Spanish 
Conquest,  the  mining  of  precious  metals  was  carried 
on  in  an  extensive  scale  and  the  accumulated  reserves 
must  have  been  immense.  The  quantities  of  gold  and 
silver  shipped  from  Peru  to  Spain  have  probably  never 
been  exceeded  by  any  country. 

Then  follows  a  long  period  of  stagnation,  during 
which  practically  no  mining  of  gold  and  silver  took 
place,  until,  in  1903,  mining  operations  for  various 
minerals  began  almost  simultaneously  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  Since  then,  progressive  develop- 
ment has  been  rapid,  but  while  in  the  early  days  gold 
and  silver  were,  in  addition  to  some  copper,  the  only 
metals  mined  for,  little  of  these  are  mined  now  and 
what  is  produced  is  mostly  as  the  by-product  of  copper 
smelting. 

There  is  something  strange  in  the  almost  complete 
disappearance  of  direct  gold  mining  in  Peru.  Some  of 
the  old  Spanish  mines  may  have  become  exhausted, 
but  from  what  is  known  of  the  geology  of  gold,  what  has 
been  dug  out  of  the  ground  must  be  only  a  very  small 
fraction  of  what  remains.  Hence  the  almost  com- 
plete cessation  of  gold  mining  is  to  say  the  least 
unexplainable. 

Peru  ranks  only  16th  among  gold  dredging  countries 
and  about  70%  of  the  gold  mined  as  such  comes  from 
the  department  of  Puno,  near  Lake  Titicaca,  at  over 

132 


12,000  feet  altitude.  The  Santo  Domingo  mine,  lo- 
cated there,  has  produced  several  million  dollars  in 
gold.  It  is  owned  and  operated  by  an  Argentine  syndi- 
cate, which  also  controls  the  Montebello  Mine  in  the 
Department  La  Liberdad,  near  Trujillo,  northern 
Peru. 

Native  gold  is  produced  only  on  the  Amazon  side  of 
the  Andes  and  shipped  via  Iquitos.  In  1920,  large 
finds  were  made  in  the  bed  of  the  Napo  River  and  they 
are  said  to  be  investigated  by  the  Gold  Consolidated, 
Ltd.,  which  is  probably  the  largest  gold  mining  concern 
in  the  world. 

Gold  mining  is  taxed  10  Peruvian  pounds  (nominally 
$50)  per  kilo  in  dust,or  bar,  and  2  pounds  per  kilo  when 
obtained  as  a  by-product. 

PERU,   SECOND   OIL  EXPORTING   COUNTRY 

Petroleum  is  fast  becoming  to  the  modern  con- 
querors of  Peru — British  and  American  capitalists — 
what  gold  was  to  the  Spanish  Conquistador es.  In- 
deed, as  concerns  exports  of  crude  oil  and  some  pe- 
troleum products,  Peru  has  already  surpassed  the 
United  States  and  has  taken  second  rank — imme- 
diately after  Mexico — as  an  exporter. 

Petroleum  has  been  known  to  exist  in  Peru  for  200 
years,  and  already  in  prehistoric  times  the  "brea'' 
(pitch)  found  at  places  where  seepages  occurred  and 

133 


the  lighter  products  had  evaporated,  was  used  by 
ancient  Peruvians  and  is  still  used  by  natives  to  line 
earthen  vessels  used  to  contain  liquids. 

However,  it  is  only  during  the  last  fifteen  years  that 
development  on  a  large  scale  has  begun.  Exploitation 
was  not  as  easy  as  in  other  oil  regions.  The  oil  is  found 
mainly  in  the  arid  north  and  the  complete  absence  of 
potable  water  and  the  unproductivity  of  the  country 
around  has  added  much  to  the  expense.  Moreover, 
there  has,  from  the  beginning,  prevailed  in  Peru — 
rightly  or  wrongly — a  sentiment  rather  hostile  towards 
large  foreign  oil  interests  which  has  not  contributed 
to  greater  development. 

The  petroleum  possibilities  of  Peru  have  been 
grouped  into  two  general  regions,  namely,  the  North 
Pacific  coast,  which  is  subdivided  into  the  Zorritos, 
Lobitos  and  the  Negritos  fields.  The  second  region  is 
the  Andean,  with  proven  fields  near  Puno,  not  far 
from  Lake  Titicaca,  at  1,250  feet  altitude,  with  va- 
rious as  yet  indefinite  possibilities  at  various  altitudes 
between  that  region  and  the  first. 

The  Andean  fields  are  not  worked. 

The  oil  of  the  northern  fields  is  from  teritiary  for- 
mation, of  a  mixed  asphaltic  and  parafin  base,  of  good 
quality,  though  not  equal  to  Pennsylvania  oil. 

Peruvian  law  provides  two  classes  of  oil  concessions, 
one  for  the  exploration  of  unproven  areas,  the  other 
for  the  exploitation  of  proven  ones.  Concessions  are 
examined  and  granted  with  a  view  to  actual  operations 

134 


and  propositions  of  persons  of  speculative  tendencies 
are  not  encouraged. 

A  sliding  tax  is  imposed  upon  oil,  and  its  producers 
at  all  times  have  protested  it  as  too  heavy,  but  it  has 
been  maintained. 

Copper — although  the  quantity  produced  is  much 
less  than  that  of  Chile — is  by  far  the  most  important 
mineral  mined  in  Peru  at  present,  and,  during  the  last 
few  years  until  1920,  the  exports  have  continually  been 
on  the  increase. 

The  most  important  copper  mining  concern  of  the 
country  is  the  famous  Cerro  de  Pasco  Mining  Com- 
pany, an  American  corporation,  whose  property  and 
smelter  are  located  about  130  miles  from  Lima,  on  the 
Lima  and  Oroya  railroad,  at  the  junction  of  the  west 
and  east  cordilleras.  The  visible  ore  reserves  of  this 
property  is  said  to  exceed  3  million  tons  which  figure 
may  be  exceeded  following  further  development  work. 
The  property  includes  coal  mines,  the  product  of  which, 
however,  is  of  inferior  quality  and  has  to  be  treated 
before  its  availability  as  fuel.  The  Company  is  capital- 
ized at  $10,000,000. 

The  second  important  copper  mining  concern  is  con- 
troled  by  the  British  Banking  House  of  Backus  & 
Johnston,  with  mines  at  Casapalca,  the  third,  under 
Cerro  de  pasco  control,  and  100  miles  from  the  former, 
is  the  Morococha  mine.  There  are  several  less  im- 
portant copper  plants  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

135 


Peru  possesses  more  visible  Vanadium  Ore,  than 
the  rest  of  the  world  combined,  and  the  Peruvian  pro- 
duction of  that  metal  covers  over  two-thirds  of  the 
world  consumption. 

For  several  years  after  its  discovery,  vanadium  was 
considered  as  mere  laboratory  curiosity.  Later  it  was 
used  in  the  dyeing  of  certain  weaves,  in  the  decorating 
of  chinaware  and  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  kinds 
of  glass  to  which  it  gives  a  crystal  appearance,  and 
greater  elasticity. 

It  is  also  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  zinc  plates 
now  used  in  lithography  in  place  of  stones,  but  its 
principal  use  is  as  a  ferrous  alloy.  Even  when  added 
in  very  small  quantities  (as  little  as  four  pounds  to  the 
ton)  vanadium  gives  to  steel  greater  strength  and 
ductibility  as  well  as  an  increased  power  to  resist 
shocks  and  the  effect  of  vibration  and  friction,  hence 
the  extensive  use  of  vanadium  steel  in  the  manufacture 
of  tools. 


The  main  Peruvian  Vanadium  deposits  are  located  in 
the  Junin  department  at  Mina  Ragra,  at  16,500  feet 
altitude  or  some  three  miles  up  to  the  sky.  They  were 
known  by  the  owner  of  mining  claims,  a  native  Peru- 
vian, but  brought  to  light  in  the  outside  world  through 
James  J.  Flannery,  of  Pittsburgh. 

136 


Mr.  Flannery  took  a  trip  to  Peru  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  the  Vanadium  property.  All  the  capital  he 
could  gather  together  was  $20,000.  That  wasn't 
much,  and  that  was  only  a  fraction  of  what  was  asked 
for  the  mine.  But  Mr.  Flannery  knew  the  value  of  the 
sight  of  a  heap  of  gold,  compared  with  sheets  of  paper 
with  promises  to  pay  later.  He  secured  glittering  gold 
pieces  for  the  full  amount  of  the  investment  he  was 
able  to  make,  and,  at  the  psychological  moment,  while 
negociating  with  the  owner,  flung  the  gold  upon  the 
table. 

The  story  goes  that  the  scheme  worked,  and  that  the 
owner  promised  to  sell  for  the  pile  of  gold  before  him. 
While  the  papers  were  drafted,  a  cable  came  from  an 
English  syndicate  offering  $200,000,  but  the  Peruvian, 
Mr.  Fernandani,  kept  his  word.  He  was  later  rewarded 
by  Flannery  with  a  substantial  block  of  stock,  now 
worth  a  big  fortune,  in  the  company  he  organized. 

The  mines  are  controlled  by  the  Vanadium  Corpora- 
tion of  America,  in  New  York. 

OTHER  INTERESTING  MINERALS 

Peru  furnishes  80%  of  the  total  world  production 
of  molybdenum,  one  of  the  rarer  minerals.  It  is 
found  in  small  deposits  in  various  parts  of  the  Sierra, 
but  the  deposits  of  Ricran,  in  the  Jauja  district,  de- 
partment of  Junin  are  considered  of  the  greater  im- 
portance. ^ 

137 


For  a  number  of  years  the  use  of  molybdenum  was 
confined  to  laboratory  practice,  as  ammonium  molyb- 
date,  in  phosphorus  analyses.  Now,  its  compounds 
are  used  as  dyeing  agents  for  ceramics  and  silks,  in  the 
manufacture  of  gun  powder,  and  as  a  steel  alloy  which 
it  hardens  without  impairing  its  malleability.  Hence 
its  use  for  tool  and  wire  steel. 

The  superior  quality  of  the  tungsten  ores  of  Peru 
has  often  been  commented  upon,  yet,  as  a  producer, 
Peru  never  has  exceeded  the  third  rank  among  South 
American  countries.  Two  of  the  deposits  are  claimed 
to  be  the  largest  in  the  world,  namely  that  of  Cuzco 
and  that  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Pelagatos  separating 
the  Provinces  of  Chuco  and  Pallasca.  Curiously,  the 
third  important  Peruvian  deposits,  those  of  the  Cerro 
Julcani  were  worked  for  many  years  until  1916,  however 
not  for  the  sake  of  tungsten,  but  for  the  gold  that  the 
ores  contain. 

Peruvian  tungsten,  as  a  rule,  occurs  in  the  form  of 
concentrates  whose  yield  varies  from  50  to  70%. 

Silver  is  found  in  many  sections  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes,  both  alone  and  associated  with  other  metals, 
especially  with  copper  and  lead.  "Cascajo"  is  a  silver- 
bearing  ore,  mined  on  a  large  scale  in  the  Cerro  de 
Pasco  district,  which  is  peculiar  to  Peru. 

Probably  the  most  important  silver  mine  of  the 
country  is  the  Anglo-French  Ticapampa  Silver  Com- 
pany, near  the  small  port  of  Huarmay,  between  Sa- 
manco  and  Supe.  The  Caylloma  silver  mines  in  the 

138 


Department  of  the  Arequipa,  were  very  famous  at  one 
time.  They  were  worked  under  the  Incas  for  several 
generations,  but  it  is  only  in  1630  that  the  Spaniards 
discovered  their  location.  Judging  from  old  Tax 
books  still  preserved,  the  annual  production  must  have 
exceeded  one  million  ounces — as  much  as  the  total 
production  of  the  country  at  present. 

Mercury,  as  cinabar,  is  found  near  Huancavelica, 
also  near  Chonta,  Dos  de  Mayo  and  Puno. 

The  production  of  Peru  in  lead  and  zinc  has,  thus 
far,  been  negligible,  but  vast  deposits  of  these  are 
known  to  exist  near  Chilete,  Yauli,  Huarochiri,  Pallasca 
and  Huari. 

Nickel  and  Cobalt  have  been  proven,  (but  they  are 
not  mined)  in  the  provinces  of  Lamar  and  Conception. 

Antimony  is  found  in  Yauli  and  Huancavelica  and 
this  metal  has  been  mined  on  a  small  scale  during  the 
war,  but  the  deposits  are  not  worked  at  present. 

Owing  to  the  dry  atmosphere  and  absence  of  rain  on 
the  Peruvian  coast,  various  kinds  of  mineral  salts  have 
accumulated  there  in  considerable  quantities.  Among 
these  are  nitrates,  ma&nesia,  alumogen,  sodium 
sulphite,  etc.  Sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  is 
found  in  deposits  not  only  near  the  coast  but  as  far 
inland  and  at  as  high  altitudes  as  that  of  Cuzco. 

Sulphur  exists  in  great  abundance  in  proximity  of 
several  volcanoes,  but  the  Department  of  Piura  is  the 
only  important  producer  at  present.  A  plant  of  150 
tons  daily  capacity  is  in  partial  operation  there. 

139 


Borax  deposits  are  known  to  exist  in  Arequipa, 
Moquega,  Tacna  and  Camana,  but  the  only  deposits 
exploited  at  present  are  those  of  Salinas,  between 
Arequipa  and  Moquega.  They  are  controlled  by 
Borax  Consolidated,  Ltd.,  which  has  practically  a 
monopoly  of  world  Borax  production  and  sale. 

Beds  of  Graphite  exist  and  at  one  time  were  ex- 
ploited on  a  small  scale  in  the  Department  of  La 
Liberdad, 

Large  deposits  of  Potassium  Carbonate  were  re- 
cently discovered  in  the  Jauja  Valley. 

Thus  far,  little  has  been  heard  of  the  Iron  Ore  de- 
posits of  Peru,  but  outcroppings  of  both  magnetic  and 
hematite  ore  are  met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 
The  best  known  deposits  are  located  in  the  Depart- 
ments of  Piura,  Calca  and  Larez,  where  magnetic  ore1 
is  claimed  to  have  analyzed  as  much  as  80%  metallic 
iron. 

Marbles,  gypsum,  kaolin,  ochres  and  some  of  the 
rare  earths  have  been  located  but  have  not  yet  been 
made  the  object  of  any  industry. 

Mica  deposits  are  worked  in  Ouanacharca,  province 
of  Camana,  where  both  geological  and  industrial  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  their  exploitation.  The  whole 
output  of  the  mine  is  shipped  to  the  United  States. 

Guano,  once  the  most  important  item  of  export  in 
Peru,  is  not  any  longer  a  source  of  considerable  re- 
venue to  its  Government.  The  deposits  are  far  from 
exhausted,  but  a  series  of  concurring  factors  has  les- 

140 


sened  the  importance  of  the  industry  of  guano  gather- 
ing and  shipping. 

For  a  time,  the  Peruvian  Corporation  was  the  only 
important  guano  concessionaire  and  it  has  shipped 
two-thirds  of  its  original  contract  giving  it  three  mil- 
lion tons.  A  new  agreement  has  been  entered  into 
between  the  Peruvian  Corporation  and  the  Peruvian 
Government  in  1921. 

The  second  important  guano  concern  was  German, 
but  it  is  not  operating  its  concession  at  present. 

The  domestic  requirements  in  guano  supplied  by  the 
Compania  Administradora,  a  government  institution, 
which  controls  all  deposits  south  of  Callao  and  north 
of  the  Chincha  islands. 

Guano  is  analyzed  before  shipment  and  sold  upon  a 
base  price  according  to  its  value  as  a  fertilizer. 


PERUVIAN  COAL  PROSPECTS 

Although  vast  deposits  of  coal  are  known  to  extend 
along  the  crest  of  the  Western  Cordillera,  spreading  from 
the  south  towards  the  extreme  north  of  the  country, 
branching  out  in  the  region  of  Huancavelica  both 
towards  the  coast  and  towards  the  interior,  Peru  is 
still  a  large  importer  of  coal,  mainly  from  Chile  and 
from  the  United  States. 

Some  of  the  largest  known  Peruvian  deposits  are 
easily  workable,  but  production  has  been  thus  far 

141 


limited  to  exploitation  on  a  comparatively  small  scale 
by  copper  mining  interests. 

Industrial  exploitation  has  remained  impracticable 
largely  because  of  lack  of  transportation  facilities  and 
of  capital. 

Peruvian  coal  is  in  the  main  of  the  Cretaceous  age, 
and  primarily  lignite  and  sub-bituminous.  However, 
high  grade  bituminous  and  anthracite  coal  fields  have 
been  located. 

The  coal  measures  are  of  variable  size  and  so  dis- 
tributed that  practically  every  department  is  known  to 
possess  interesting  reserves.  Two  Government  Com- 
missions are  now  looking  into  possibilities  of  develop- 
ment. One  is  studying  the  soft  coals  of  the  Oyon  region 
the  other  the  anthracite  fields  of  the  Santa  Valley. 

In  1919,  a  syndicate  of  Lima  capitalists  was  formed 
which  intends  to  work  the  Hunaiday  fields  in  La 
Liberdad  province.  With  Government  aid,  a  70  km. 
long  road  is  being  made  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  later 
serve  as  road  bed  for  a  railway.  This  line  will  ulti- 
mately be  connected  by  rail  either  with  Malabrigo  or 
with  a  new  port  to  be  made  for  Ascope.  The  total  cost 
of  the  project,  including  that  of  facilities  to  mine  500 
tons  daily,  are  estimated  at  less  than  half  a  million 
dollars. 

A  bill  recently  passed  by  the  Peruvian  Congress  al- 
lows the  Government  to  contract  with  the  Banco  Ital- 
iano  of  Lima  for  a  loan  of  three  million  soles  (11/2  mil- 
lion  dollars)  for  the  construction  of  a  railroad  connect  - 

142 


ing  the  Jahunhuasi  coal  fields  with  some  stations  of 
the  Peruvian  Central  Railways. 

A  system  of  aerial  cable  transportation  to  these 
fields  is  also  projected. 

THE  LAWS  ARE  LIBERAL 

The  Mining  Laws  of  Peru  are  most  liberal  and  in- 
tended to  facilitate  development.  They  make  no  dis- 
tinction of  nationality  and  foreigners  have  the  same 
rights  as  Peruvians.  Equality  is  carried  so  far  that 
in  the  local  councils  of  mining  districts  miners  elect 
their  own  representatives,  foreigners  being  both  elec- 
tors and  eligible. 

The  usual  dimensions  of  mining  claims,  or  "Perte- 
nancias"  is  100  by  200  metres,  a  maximum  of  70 
Pertenancias,  or  less,  constituting  a  grant  or  conces- 
sion. 

However,  the  acquisition  of  several  grants  in  close 
proximity  to  one  another  is  permitted  under  certain 
conditions. 

The  only  title  necessary  to  obtain  and  retain  Govern- 
ment mining  property  is  a  tax  of  15  soles  (about  7l/2 
dollars)  every  six  months  on  each  pertenancia.  Gold 
and  silver  are  the  only  two  metals  on  which  an  export 
tax  is  levied,  and  the  only  restrictions  to  mining  are 
as  concerns  guano,  borax,  and  similar  salts  which  are 
subject  to  special  laws. 

143 


RAILROADS 

The  topography  of  Peru  is  such  that  the  creation  of  a 
railroad  system  radiating  toward  an  important  center 
presents  greater  difficulties  than  in  other  countries 
also  cut  up  by  mountains,  such  as  Colombia  and 
Venezuela.  The  impenetrability  of  the  Andes — ex- 
cept at  prohibitive  expense — is  directly  responsible 
for  the  seeming  backwardness  of  Peru  as  concerns 
railroads. 

Indirectly,  development  has  also  been  retarded  by 
the  fact  that  by  far  the  majority  of  the  people  of  the 
country  are  Indians  who  produce  practically  nothing 
beyond  their  wants. 

The  railroads  of  Peru  all  start  from  the  sea,  slowly 
pushing  their  way  across  the  coastal  belt,  extensions 
being  built  as  conditions  require  and  at  the  same  time 
permit.  Only  two  of  the  Peruvian  railroads  cross 
the  mountain  barriers.  The  Central,  from  Lima  to 
Aroya  and  Cerro  de  Pasco,  with  other  branches  to 
Huancayo  and  to  Morococha,  reaches  an  altitude  of 
15,665  feet  at  the  tunnel  of  Galera,  on  the  main  line 
and  15,865  feet  on  one  point  of  the  Morococha  Branch. 
It  is  by  far  the  highest  railroad  in  the  world,  exceeding 
by  nearly  3,000  feet  the  highest  Swiss  mountain  rail- 
road. Including  the  Ancon-Lima  Branch,  the  system 
is  384  miles  long. 

The  Southern  railways  run  from  Mollendo  to  Juliaca, 
via  Arequipa.  The  branch  completed  to  Cuzco  is 

144 


being  extended  toward  Santa  Ana  on  the  Amazon 
side  of  the  Andes.  A  short  branch  runs  from  Juliaca 
to  Puno,  connecting  with  lines  of  steamers  operated 
by  the  same  company  on  Lake  Titicaca.  The  length 
of  the  system  is  864  miles,  standard  gauge. 

Both  of  these  systems,  as  well  as  a  number  of  trans- 
versal lines,  are  Government  owned,  but  operated  by 
the  Peruvian  corporation. 

In  a  general  way,  the  railroads  of  Peru  run  west  to 
east  and  practically  all  railroad  projects  follow  the 
same  direction.  Longitudinal  railroads  are  not  likely 
to  pay  any  better  in  Peru  than  anywhere  else  on  the 
South  American  continent  and  the  idea  of  building 
lines  which  would  become  parts  of  the  North  American 
idea  of  a  Pan-American  railroad  is  not  any  more 
seriously  considered  in  Peru. 

Each  valleys,  in  seeking  an  exit  to  the  sea,  has 
chosen  the  most  likely  route  and  the  cheapest  means 
of  reaching  it  without  thought  of  a  national  railroad 
system.  This  explains  the  variety  of  gauges  and  of 
methods  of  construction  and  operation,  each  line  being 
purely  regional.  Cooperation  and  connection  with 
other  lines  inland  was  an  afterthought  and  is  still  a 
secondary  consideration. 

Certain  taxes  and  revenues  are  set  aside  by  law  for 
subsidizing  railroad  construction  and  the  government 
policy  has  at  all  times  been  very  liberal  with  a  view  of 
encouraging  building  by  private  corporations.  How- 
ever, little  has  been  done  in  recent  years. 

145 


PERUVIAN  CORPORATION 

It  is  not  possible  to  discuss  economic  conditions  in 
Peru  without  knowing  at  least  something  about  the 
Peruvian  Corporation. 

In  1890,  Peru  was  in  financial  difficulties,  which  were 
settled  by  the  organization  of  the  London  Corporation 
of  the  Foreign  Bondholders  of  Peru,  who  took  over  the 
entire  foreign  indebtedness  of  the  Republic  in  exchange 
for  certain  concessions,  including  the  control  of  the 
State  Railroads  for  a  period  of  66  years. 

The  Peruvian  Corporation  was  subsequently  or- 
ganized to  administer  these  concessions. 

Besides  the  railroads,  the  most  important  concession 
given  to  the  Peruvian  Corporation  was  that  of  exploit- 
ing three  million  tons  of  guano  in  certain  definite  re- 
gions. The  Corporation  has  later  gone  into  various 
lines  of  business,  including  cotton  growing  and  sugar 
manufacturing  and  incidentally  even  in  commercial 
enterprises. 

INCAS  AND  PRE-INCAS 

No  country  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  has  as  tragic 
a  history  as  Peru,  and  what  is  known  of  pre-historic 
times  appears  even  more  dramatic. 

The  story  of  the  aborigenes  of  North  America  is 
interesting  mainly  from  an  ethnic  point  of  view.  The 
study  of  old  Mexican  civilization  is  very  captivating; 
Peruvian  pre-history  arouses  equal  interest,  but,  in 

146 


addition,  it  has  much  that  borders  on  the  mysterious 
and  even  the  mystic. 

The  high  Peruvian  plateau,  which  was  the  principal 
seat  of  ancient  Peruvian  civilization,  would  seem  to  be 
particularly  unfit  to  be  the  seat  of  a  great  civilization. 
Yet,  civilization  has  not  attained  such  heights  anywhere 
else  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  the  genius  of  the 
two  or  more  races  of  humans  who  have  succeeded 
themselves  there,  has  brought  about  results,  the  re- 
mains of  which  arouse  the  admiration  of  men  of  today. 

It  is  not  merely  in  a  material  way  that  the  races 
which  inhabited  the  Peruvian  highlands  were  great. 
They  have  left  no  traces  of  their  writings,  but  various 
phases  of  their  civilization  indicate  that  their  intelli- 
gence must  have  been  keen  and  their  understanding 
of  what  is  now  characterized  as  the  "occult"  and  their 
mental  powers  must  have  been  great. 

Popularly  speaking,  the  entire  period  of  the  history 
of  Peru  which  precedes  Spanish  Invasion,  is  called 
Inca.  However,  the  civilization  of  which  we  find  so 
many  and  so  interesting  remains  antedates  the  Incas 
— who  began  to  rule  in  1250 — by  many  centuries. 

The  Incas  are  not  a  race  of  people,  but  a  dynasty 
founded  by  Manco-Capac  and  queen  Mamma-Ocello. 
They  were  believed  to  be  children  of  the  sun  and  to  have 
come  from  heaven  by  way  of  an  island  in  Lake  Ti- 
ticaca. 

They  and  their  successors  manifested  a  remarkable 
talent  of  organization  and  they  governed  the  empire 

147 


they  gradually  formed  (which  included  most  of  what 
is  now  Ecuador,  all  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  parts  of 
Chile),  as  an  absolute,  despotic  theocratic,  monarchy, 
combined  with  an  intelligent  benevolent  paternalism, 
which  seemed  at  times  cruel,  but  which  was  free  from 
the  orgies  of  human  sacrifices  which  were  so  frequent 
in  Mexico. 

ETHNIC 

Also  from  an  ethnic  point  of  view,  Peru  is  very  in- 
teresting, even  to  the  casual  observer.  Its  people 
vary  so  widely  in  racial  origin  and  in  characteristics, 
that  one  can  speak  of  a  typical  Peruvian  even  less  than 
of  a  typical  North  American. 

A  Peruvian  may  be  a  pure-blooded  Indian;  he  may 
be  a  blue-blooded  Spaniard,  or  the  son  of  a  recent 
immigrant,  or  a  mixture  of  these. 

As  concerns  social  status,  a  Peruvian  may  be  an 
untamed  Indian  of  the  Amazon,  or  a  subdued  aborigine 
compelled  to  work  for  a  near-slave  driver  in  the  vast 
forests  of  the  "Montana."  He  may  be  a  mediaeval 
man,  keeping  a  few  sheep  and  growing  a  patch  of  broad 
beans,  living  as  his  ancestors  did  a  thousand  years  ago, 
or  he  may  be  a  civilized  Indian — often  equivalent  to 
a  degenerate  Indian — in  which  case  he  will  be  either 
a  laborer  with  quite  modern  bolshevik  tendencies,  or 
a  servant  or  worker  for  a  white  or  a  near-white  master, 
serving  him  with  doglike  faith.  Or,  if  he  is  a  man  of 

148 


education,  he  may  belong  to  any  of  the  shades  of  social 
standing  known  in  Peru  and  elsewhere. 

MANY  ORIENTAL  TRAITS 

Peruvian  civilization  is,  in  the.  main,  Spanish,  but 
many  of  its  phases  may  be  traced  to  Oriental  origins: 
Patriarchal  customs,  sense  of  the  unity  of  the  family, 
veneration  of  the  "pater  familias,"  and  reverence  of 
ancestry  is  almost  Chinese.  There  is  an  appreciable 
difference  between  Peruvian  aesthetics  and  that  of 
European  Latins:  they  love  the  colorful  as  much  as 
the  Spaniards  and  the  Portuguese,  but  even  more 
gorgeously  so;  they  are  partial  to  intricacy  of  line  de- 
sign as  much  as  Italians,  but  in  a  more  sober  way. 
The  draping  of  the  "manta"  of  the  Peruvian  women 
(the  chumu  of  the  Arab  women),  resembles  closely, 
in  its  tasteful  arrangement,  the  wearing  of  the  shawl 
by  the  Hindu  wench.  The  patio  is  Mauresque,  not 
Spanish,  and  the  seclusion  of  the  home  and  the  delicate 
privacy  afforded  to  womanhood  is  decidedly  near- 
Orient. 

Quite  as  much  as  other  Latin-Americans,  Peruvians 
are  theoretical  rather  than  practical;  they  have  a  pen- 
chant for  the  amenities  of  life  rather  than  for  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial;  they  are  indirect  in  their  ap- 
proach of  a  subject  nearly  as  much  as  Semites  and  they 
are  Orientals  also  in  their  tendency  to  say  the  pleasant 
thing  rather  than  the  truth.  They  will  go  the  nicer 

149 


route  rather  than  the  shortest  and,  in  many  ways,  the 
practical  is  likely  to  give  way  to  the  beautiful. 

The  North  American,  with  his  directness  and  absence 
of  show  of  feelings,  is  apt  to  belittle  the  polite  manners 
of  the  French,  the  Latin-American  and  the  Japanese, 
and  he  often  criticizes  them  as  insincere.  However, 
unless  hardened  to  northern  ways,  one  finds,  after 
living  for  a  while  in  Lima,  Latin-American  amiability 
contagious,  and  the  sweet  amenities  of  life's  relation- 
ship become  agreeable  and  even  indispensable. 

Some  one  said  that  the  North  American  is  guided 
by  a  sense  of  the  practical  and  the  Latin-American  by 
feelings  and  emotions.  Perhaps,  both  exaggerate  and 
have  too  little  of  what  the  others  have  in  excess,  and 
both  would  do  better  with  a  little  of  the  surplus  qualities 
of  the  other.  And,  indeed,  has  there  not  been  a 
change,  during  the  last  few  years,  both  north  and  south 
of  the  Rio  Grande?  Unquestionably,  Latin -Americans 
are  adopting  many  of  the  practical  methods  of  the  "yan- 
qui." 

Moreover,  happily,  Yankee  bruskness  is  more  and 
more  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past  and  saying  the 
pleasant  thing — sometimes  irrespective  of  the  exact 
truth — and  the  "voice  with  a  smile"  begin  to  win,  also, 
in  the  land  of  the  practical  man. 

A  TOTALLY  DIFFERENT  POINT  OF  VIEW 

On  the  other  hand,  the  average  North  American 
misjudges  the  Latin- American  for  another  difference 

150 


of  temperament.  Because  every  man  in  the  United 
States  is  a  business  man  or  a  worker,  we  are  too  much 
inclined  to  believe  that  others  should,  as  we  do,  work 
perpetually.  We  characterize  it  as  sinful  idleness, 
when  we  hear  that  many  people  in  Peru  and  elsewhere 
have  little  thought  of  creating  something — much  less 
of  making  mere  money — and  spend  all  or  most  of  their 
time  just  living — indulging  in  literature,  sciences  and 
arts,  without  a  thought  about  producing  anything 
that  has  -money  value. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  Peruvians  are  not 
primarily  business  people.  Peru — at  least  as  concerns 
its  educated  class — is  unique  among  Latin-American 
countries  in  proudly  holding  to  the  old  lines  of  noble 
Spanish  ancestry,  which  many  families — including 
some  having  absorbed  appreciable  quantities  of  Indian 
blood — trace  directly  to  early  Conquistadores.  To 
these  Peruvians,  with  few  exceptions,  pride  of  cast 
and  duty  to  their  social  class  is  more  vital  than  creative 
work  or  their  own  and  the  community's  material  de- 
velopment. 

There  has  been,  during  the  last  ten  years  or  so,  a 
great  gradual  change  towards  the  North  American  point 
of  view  of  development,  but  there  are  still  many  Peru- 
vians of  keen  intellect  and  high  culture  who  consider 
modern  material  development  as  merely  a  form  of 
barbarism,  which  can  bring  no  lasting  happiness  to 
the  people  of  their  country. 

The  number  of  young  Peruvians  who  go  to  the  States 
151 


for  their  education  is  yearly  increasing,  but  they  are 
almost  exclusively  commercial  and  technical  students 
and  members  of  the  new,  growing  middle  class.  Among 
cultured  people  of  Peru  and  other  countries,  the  ten- 
dency remains  to  look  to  Europe  for  inspiration  and 
higher  knowledge. 

To  Peruvians,  Paris  is  almost  as  much  the  "Ville 
Lumiere"  as  to  the  French. 

In  spite  of  a  decided  desire  to  absorb  from  American 
ways  what  suits  them  and  what  they  need  most, 
Europe  will  continue  to  mean  more  to  them  than  the 
United  States,  not  because  we  have  less  to  offer  them, 
but  because  the  intellectual  life  of  the  North  appears 
to  Latins  as  dry,  heartless  and  material,  and  because 
it  fails  to  feed  their  hearts  and  to  sustain  their  emo- 
tions. 

Someone  said  somewhere:  "The  Tropics  are  for 
dreaming,  and  other  places  for  work."  This  largely 
explains — if  not  excuses — much  of  what  has  been  criti- 
cized in  Latin  American  indolence,  and  many  Ameri- 
cans who  have  lived  in  Peru  understand.  In  spite 
of  all  that  a  man  from  the  north  feels  inclined  to  criti- 
cize, they  find  Peruvians,  as  a  whole,  intensely  affec- 
tionate, with  a  keen  love  of  home  life.  They  are  a 
very  likable  people  who  do  not  mind  going  out  of  their 
way  to  do  a  favor  even  for  a  stranger.  They  make 
good  and  pleasant  friends,  and  while  their  ideals  are 
not  practical  and  at  times  appear  incoherent,  they  are 
as  high  as  ours. 

152 


INDIANS 

The  ethic  problem  of  Peru  and  of  Bolivia  is  the 
Indian.  In  Peru,  it  is  that  of  the  Quechua,  a  tame, 
docile,  people  crushed  by  centuries  of  brutalization. 
In  Bolivia,  in  addition  to  the  Quechua,  there  is  the 
Aymara,  whom  oppression  has  made  rebellious  in- 
stead of  tame. 

If  considered  in  his  personal  qualities,  the  Quechuan 
is  the  most  wonderful  Indian  on  earth.  He  is  good 
natured,  humble  and  always  ready  to  help.  He  is 
adaptable  and  able  to  do,  in  his  own  way,  almost  any- 
thing that  can  reasonably  be  asked  of  him.  He  is 
faithful  to  his  "padron"  even  to  the  death. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  treatment  to  which 
the  Indians  have  been  subjected  by  the  Spaniards, 
which  is  at  least  in  part  the  cause  of  their  present  tem- 
perament. No  one  approves  the  cruelties  of  the  past. 
However,  one  should  in  all  justice  state  that  the  cruel 
manners  which  are  justly  disapproved  were  not  pecul- 
iarly Spanish,  but  were  the  ways  of  the  times.  More- 
over, the  Spanish  kings  did  not  have  only  Spanish 
Governors.  One  of  these  rulers,  Charles  V,  who  was 
also  Emperor  of  Germany,  sent  many  of  his  German 
countrymen  to  his  Spanish  possessions.  Among  these 
were  three  of  the  most  cruel  men  who  ever  lived  on 
American  soil. 

Illtreated  the  Indian  is  to  this  day.  However,  op- 
pression has  been  so  ingrained  into  his  soul  that  he 

153 


cannot  understand  life  otherwise.  If  he  were  free  to 
give  up  working  for  his  "padron,"  he  would  drift  from 
forced  industry  to  voluntary  idleness.  Kind  masters 
have  often  been  rewarded  by  their  Indians  drifting  into 
outcasts  even  more  degenerate  than  they  were  as 
semi-slaves. 

A  DIFFICULT  PROBLEM 

The  fact  is  that  the  Indian  will  not  work  regularly 
for  the  white  man  unless  forced  to  do  so  either  by 
circumstances  or  compulsion.  The  white  man  wants 
to  make  money  with  the  natural  resources  of  South 
America  and  gives  to  his  activities  the  name  "develop- 
ment." Immigration  does  not  supply  labor  to  West 
Coast  countries  as  it  does  to  the  United  States,  hence 
development  is  not  possible  without  Indian  labor,  and 
as  the  Indian  does  not  work  without  some  sort  of  com- 
pulsion, laws  are  enacted  to  put  him  and  keep  him  in 
a  state  of  semi-slavery. 

The  writer  has  witnessed  "recruiting"  agents  of  a 
large  mining  company  invading  a  village  of  the  "alti- 
plano,"  making  every  able  bodied  man  drunk  with 
free  rum,  then  loaning  the  best  men  a  small  coin  to 
buy  more  booze  with,  which  indebted  them  to  their 
employer  and  legally  compelled  them  to  work  for  him 
for  as  long  as  the  debt  was  not  paid. 

That  day,  some  30  men  were  torn  from  their  families 
and  shipped  like  cattle,  they  did  not  know  where. 

154 


Arrived  at  the  mining  camp,  the  men  are  forced  to 
buy  on  credit  from  the  commissary  of  the  company, 
shoes,  hats,  and  many  things  they  do  not  need,  and 
they  ar  e  kept  in  debt  for  as  long  as  their  work  is  needed. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  minerals  mined  by  labor 
procured  in  that  manner  were  needed  to  win  the  War. 
However,  even  if  this  end  justified  the  means,  the  white 
man's  methods — which  in  part  prevail  to  this  day — are 
not  conducive  to  raising  the  moral  and  intellectual 
level  of  the  Indian. 

It  has  taken  hundreds  of  years  of  oppression  to 
bring  the  Quechuas  to  their  present  condition  of  sub- 
jection; it  will  take  generations  to  bring  them,  as  a 
race,  to  the  white  man's  ideal  standard  of  morals,  and 
a  continuation  of  oppresive  methods  is  not  leading  to 
that  end. 

Freedom,  betterment  of  economic  condition,  parallel 
with  education  seem  the  only  remedies.  That  the 
Indian  is  amenable  to  the  highest  intellectual  level 
is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  his  race  has  given  to  Peru 
and  Bolivia  several  Presidents  and  a  number  of  their 
most  prominent  men. 

The  Aymaraes  of  parts  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  a  race 
very  different  from  the  Quechuas.  They  were  con- 
querred  in  a  military  way  after  centuries  of  struggle 
first  by  the  Quechua  under  the  Incas  and  then  by  the 
Spaniards;  they  were  subdued,  but  never  subjugated. 
They  are  a  mountainous  folk  not  inclined  to  civiliza- 
tion; they  lack  inclination  and  ability  to  work. 

15.5 


TRAINING  VS.  EDUCATION 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  the  Government 
of  Bolivia,  realizing  that  the  Aymaraes  are  not  amen- 
able to  the  white  man's  education  resolved  to  give 
them  training,  instead  of  schooling.  Compulsory 
military  service  was  enforced  also  as  the  Aymaraes 
were  concerned,  and  the  Germans  being  considered 
the  most  successful  drill  masters  a  hundred  or  so  com- 
missioned and  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  Kaiser's 
army  were  engaged.  The  results  have  been  quite  re- 
markable. 

While  we  may  feel  inclined  to  consider  our  educa- 
tional methods  a  universal  panacea  for  all  kinds  of 
racial  and  social  ills,  experience  has  shown  in  both 
Peru  and  Bolivia  that  the  race  problems  of  these  coun- 
tries needs  more  than  aggressive  methods  for  its  solu- 
tion. It  needs  above  all,  time  and  then  a  good  deal 
of  human  love,  forbearance  and  intelligent  considera- 
tion. 

EDUCATION 

English  and  American  writers,  who  have  discussed 
education  in  Peru,  have  often  built  their  conclusions 
upon  estimates  or  statistics  of  illiteracy  and  otherwise 
looked  at  bare  facts  rather  than  at  conditions.  Their 
conclusions  were  necessarily  faulty. 

It  is  easy  to  argue  onesidedly  upon  concrete  facts, 
to  theorize  on  the  backwardness  of  education  and  the 

156 


low  intellectual  level  of  the  people  of  some  Latin 
American  countries  and  then  perorize  upon  their  need 
of  Anglo-Saxon  help. 

When  discussing  the  intellectual  level  of  the  people 
of  Peru,  one  must  above  all  remember  that  Peruvians 
do  not  enjoy  the  ease  and  the  cheapness  of  travel  with 
which  Americans  and  Europeans  are  blessed.  All  but 
few  Peruvians  are  compelled  by  circumstances  to  spend 
their  entire  lives  within  a  small  area,  thus  missing 
opportunities  to  gain  new  points  of  comparsion,  and 
to  broaden  their  vision. 

Then,  critics  should  also  remember  that  the  educa- 
tion of  the  people  of  a  country  is  something  more  than 
the  building  of  school  houses  and  the  providing  of 
teachers.  The  educational  problem  of  Peru  is  that  as 
much  as  two-thirds  of  its  population  understand  only 
Indian  dialects  and  languages.  The  Peruvian  Indian 
is  intelligent  and  he  has  a  keen  mentality,  but  even 
the  one  who  understands  Spanish  is  not  easily  amenable 
to  the  white  man's  kind  of  education.  Indeed — as  the 
experience  in  Bolivia  has  shown — the  Quechua  and 
the  Aymara  Indians  are  easily  drilled,  trained,  but 
taught  by  the  white  man's  method  only  with  consider- 
able difficulty. 

When  one,  moreover,  realizes  that  there  are  ap- 
preciable proportion  of  Indian  blood — and  hence  also 
of  mentality — in  all  but  somewhat  less  than  10%  of  the 
population  of  Peru,  one  will  grasp  the  difficulties  with 
which  Peruvian  educators  have  to  contend  with  and 

157 


one  will  find  in  Peru  much  more  to  be  praised  than 
to  be  criticized. 

In  spite  of  difficulties,  compulsory  school  attendance 
is  not  badly  enforced.  There  is  a  school  in  every 
Peruvian  hamlet.  Besides,  there  are  in  the  country 
27  colleges,  one  private  University — that  of  San  Marcos, 
in  Lima — and  three  National  Universities — in  Arequi- 
pa,  Cuzco  and  Trujillo — beside  various  professional 
and  technical  schools. 

The  salvation — the  progress  and  development  of 
Peru  and  other  Latin  American  countries  is  not  to  be 
expected  merely  by  providing  more  and  better  educa- 
tional facilities,  nor  by  more  aggressive  methods. 
What  Peru  needs,  above  all,  is  time.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
strives  to  realize  all  his  ideals  within  the  short  span  of  a 
human  life,  forgetting  that  the  World  and  the  nations 
of  the  earth  are  not  as  short-lived  as  he  is.  ^Peruvians 
refuse  to  be  driven  at  the  pace  set  by  Americans;  they 
take  their  time  even  in  their  efforts  to  bring  about 
progress;  they  know  that  their  country  will  survive 
this  and  many  other  generations  and  by  going  more 
slowly,  they  will  probably  avoid  many  of  the  mistakes 
which  we  of  the  North  are  often  making. 


158 


CHAPTER  IX 


TOPOGRAPHY 

The  eel-shape  of  Chile  is  quite  as  remarkable  as 
Italy's  boot,  and  indeed,  it  presents  to  the  beholder  of 
a  map,  a  territory  of  the  most  extraordinary  configura- 
tion. It  is  2,628  miles  long,  less  than  200  miles  at  its 
widest  and  a  strip  of  land  of  the  same  length  would 
reach  from  Key  West  to  the  North  of  Labrador.  It 
has  an  area  of  757,366  square  kilometres,  which  is 
equivalent  to  292,419  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  4,038,050  (in  1919). 

The  territory  of  Chile  may  more  or  less  arbitrarily 
be  divided  into  four  zones: 

1.  The  arid  zone  between  the  Peruvian  border  and 
Coquimbo,  where  it  practically  never  rains.  Even 
with  the  aid  of  considerable  irrigation,  the  agriculture 
of  this  territory  is,  as  a  whole,  much  less  important 
than  that  of  similar  regions  of  Peru.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  is  the  nitrates  country,  which  helps  pro- 
ducing larger  crops  in  parts  of  the  world  where  rain  is 
abundant.  The  Chilean  Andes,  in  that  region,  form 

159 


the  western  border  of  the  high  table  land  of  Bolivia 
and  include  many  peaks  rising  toward  the  sky  between 
19,000  and  22,000  feet. 

But  this  zone  is  not  entirely  arid.  It  includes  the 
Pampa  de  Tamarugal,  also  called  the  Longitudinal 
Valley,  at  from  3,000  to  4,500  feet  altitude  and  vary- 
ing in  width  from  20  to  30  miles.  Towards  its  southern 
end,  the  valleys  and  ravines,  bordered  by  high  peaks, 
are  claimed  by  Chileans  to  be  superior  in  natural 
beauty  to  the  best  Switzerland  offers  to  tourists. 

2.  The  second,  or  central  zone,  begins  at  Coquimbo 
and  ends  at  Conception.     Above  all,  it  is  a  very  rich 
mineral  country,  and  it  includes  the  Central  Valley, 
watered  by  many  streams  and  rivulets,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  fertile  region  of  Chile. 

3.  The  third  zone,   is  the  South  Central  region, 
which  includes  the  district  of  the  lakes,  and  to  which 
the  island  of  Chiloe  may  be  added.     It  is  the  country 
of  diversified  farming,  but  it  includes  a  very  important 
wheat  belt.     It  possesses  a  great  future  agriculturally. 

4.  The  fourth  zone  is  that  of  the  Patagonian  Islands 
and  channels,  which,  in  contrast  with  the  rest  of  the 
coast,  abound  in  countless  islands,  bays  and  channels, 
and  form  the  most  ragged  shores  shown  on  the  map  of 
the  earth.     It  would  seem  that  there  the  southern 
end  of  the  Andean  range    had  dropped  down  several 
thousand  feet,  with  only  some  high  plateau  and  peaks 
above  water,  submerging  the  valleys  and  lower  lands 
which  now  forms  straits  and  bays. 

160 


Vast  sections  of  this  zone  are  very  fertile,  and  even 
in  the  Magellanic  region,  there  is  already  a  very  large 
and  yet  still  growing  cattle  and  sheep  industry. 

Both  the  third  and  fourth  zones  have  enormous 
forest  resources,  which  include  soft  wood  similar  to 
North  American  pine  and  spruce,  as  well  as  large  tracts 
of  timberlands  very  suitable  for  the  making  of  wood 
pulp.  Indeed,  the  forests  of  Southern  Chile  have  been 
called  a  duplication  of  those  of  Sweden  and  Norway 

CLIMATE 

From  the  variety  of  its  topography — from  the  heart 
of  the  Tropics  to  the  border  of  Antarctic  regions ;  from 
sea  level  to  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere— it  would  seem  that  Chile  should  possess  a  great 
variety  of  climates,  and  indeed  it  does.  There  are  vast 
differences  between  the  tropical  sun  of  the  northern 
provinces  and  the  bleak  cold  of  near  Antarctic  Tierra 
del  Fuego;  from  the  moist  heat  of  northern  posts  to 
the  dry  cold  of  Alpine  altitudes,  from  the  perpetual 
spring  of  the  Central  Valley  to  the  invigorating  breezes 
of  the  islands. 

Nevertheless,  these  differences  of  climate  are  not  as 
great  as  the  erratic — one  might  almost  say  vagaric — 
configuration  of  the  country  would  lead  us  to  expect. 

The  most  important  factor  in  Chilean  climatic  con- 
ditions is  the  cold  Humboldt  Current  (see  above,  page 
96),  which  maintains  all  the  year  round  along  the  coast 

161 


fringe  from  Arica  to  Talcahuano,  a  comparatively  low, 
constant  tenperature.  But  the  coast  region  escapes 
brusk  changes  of  temperature  for  another  reason. 
The  high  Andes  are  so  near  the  coast  that  the  variable 
east  winds  on  their  course  eastward  drop  to  sea  level 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  coast.  Indeed, 
given  similar  altitudes,  that  coast  has  probably  the 
most  constant  temperature  in  the  world  and  weather 
conditions  during  certain  periods  of  the  year  are  so 
well  known  as  to  be  depended  upon  almost  to  a  day. 


A  remarkable  characteristic  of  the  climate  of  Chile 
is  the  uniformity  of  temperature  in  almost  all  its  parts. 
Nowhere  are  extremes  of  heat  or  cold  to  be  found. 
For  instance,  the  minimum  and  maximum  tempera- 
tures in  both  Arica  in  the  far  north,  and  Ancud  in  the 
south,  differ  only  by  5  or  6  degrees  centigrade.  Even 
in  the  extreme  south,  the  mean  maxima  and  minima 
differ  only  by  9  degrees. 

The  highest  temperature  observed  in  Arica  is  94°  F., 
at  Valparaiso  87°,  at  Punta  Arenas  74°.  The  minimum 
temperature  observed  in  Arica  is  49°,  Valparaiso  38° 
and  Punta  Arenas  18°. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  rainfall  of  Chile  is  very  un- 
even. In  the  north  zone,  the  scant  atmospheric 
humidity  is  barely  sufficient  to  condense  in  the  form 

162 


of  occasional  fogs  and  heavy  dews,  called  locally  ca- 
manchacas.  In  the  coast  belt  of  the  Central  Zone, 
rains  are  more  frequent  and  more  copious  than  in  the 
Central  Valley  at  the  same  latitude.  For  instance, 
mean  precipitation  in  Valparaiso  is  23°  and  in 
Santiago  only  14°.  In  many  parts  of  the  south, 
.the  rainfall  exceeds  100  inches,  the  maximum  ob- 
served being  at  Cape  Raper,  at  27°  latitude,  236 
inches  annually. 

Snow  never  falls  in  the  northern  and  central  zones, 
except  in  the  high  mountains,  but  south  of  the  47th 
degree,  snows  are  frequent  and  in  Punta  Arenas  snow 
covers  the  ground  for  weeks  at  a  time  during  the 
winter  months. 

No  part  of  Chile  is  subject  to  destructive  hail  storms, 
such  as  are  frequent  on  the  Argentine  plains. 

RAILROADS 

Chile  is  the  first  Latin  American  country  placed  on 
the  railroad  map.  In  1849,  William  Wheelright,  an 
American,  the  founder  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company,  completed  the  construction  of  a  line  from 
La  Caldera  to  Copiapo. 

The  following  year,  Wheelright,  associated  with 
Allen  Campbell,  surveyed  the  line  between  Valparaiso 
and  Santiago.  This  line  was  built,  later,  first  by 
S.  W.  Greene,  of  Rhode  Island,  and  completed  in  1893 
by  the  famous  Henry  Meiggs,  the  builder  of  the  Cen- 

163 


tral  Railways  of  Per  u.  The  total  cost  of  the  Valparaiso- 
Santiago  railroad  exceeded  12  million  dollars. 

During  the  decades  which  followed,  Chile  has  de- 
veloped a  large  mileage  of  railroads,  which  is  exceeded 
in  South  America  only  by  Brazil  and  Argentina. 
Three  of  the  Chilean  railroads  include  the  Pacific  ter- 
minals of  International  lines,  namely  the  Arica-LaPaz, 
the  Antofagasta-La  Paz,  and  the  Transandean  Rail- 
road, from  Valparaiso  and  Santiago  to  Buenos  Ayres. 

The  Antofagasta  -  La  Paz  Railroad  also  connects 
at  Uyuni  with  the  new  La  Paz-Buenos  Aires  Rail- 
road. 

Among  the  small  privately- owned  railways  of  Chile 
is  a  small  line  from  Punta  Arenas  to  the  Loreta  coal 
mines,  of  2  feet  6  gauge,  the  southernmost  railroad  in 
the  world. 

At  the  end  of  1918  the  State  Railways  operated 
4,567  kilometres  and  private  companies  3,945  kilo- 
metres of  lines.  At  the  end  of  1919,  the  railroads  of 
Chile  employed  36,000  people,  27,000  of  whom  were 
on  the  payroll  of  Government  owned  and  operated 
lines. 

The  gauges  of  the  Chilean  railroads  vary  from  2 
feet  6  inches  to  5  feet  6  inches;  the  latter  on  the  State 
lines. 

As  in  other  countries,  there  was  a  period  in  the  rail- 
road history  of  Chile,  when  the  problem  under  dis- 
cussion was  whether  or  not  to  adopt  a  policy  of  railroad 
building.  In  all  or  most  other  countries,  the  differences 

164 


of  opinions  were  whether  railroads  or  highways  would 
be  the  most  useful,  but  in  Chile  opinions  differed  as  to 
whether  money  should  be  expended  for  port  works 
or  for  railroad  lines.  Those  in  favor  of  port  works 
argued  with  some  justice  that  with  a  coast  line  such 
as  that  of  Chile,  the  railway  haul  would  necessarily 
remain  a  limited  factor,  and,  indeed,  even  now,  it 
exceeds  75  miles  in  only  a  few  instances  from  any  port, 
and  water  transportation  will  presumably  always  re- 
main the  cheaper  mode  of  communication. 

The  decision  was  cast  in  favor  of  railroads,  but 
mainly  for  strategic  reasons.  Most  of  the  transversal 
lines  pay  moderately  well,  while  the  already  built 
sections  of  the  Longitudinal  Railway  have  proven  a 
costly  and  unproductive  undertaking,  both  as  concerns 
construction  and  operation. 

All  of  the  administrations  which  have  succeeded 
themselves  have  been  committed  to  the  completion 
of  the  Longitudinal  from  Arica  to  Puerto  Montt,  but 
in  spite  of  projects  on  paper,  construction  work  done 
in  late  years,  was  almost  exclusively  on  transversal 
lines. 

RAILROAD  PROJECTS 

The  principal  railroad  project  whose  execution  has 
been  decided  upon  is  a  direct  line  from  Valparaiso  to 
Santiago,  via  Casa  Blanca,  which  would  be  only  slightly 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  present  line. 

165 


The  cost  of  this  line  is  estimated  at  12  million 
dollars.  As  it  will  open  a  thus  far  neglected  fertile 
region,  it  is  expected  that  it  will  pay  well. 

The  second  most  important  project  is  the  electrifi- 
cation of  the  present  Valparaiso-Santiago  line  and  of 
the  State  railways,  at  a  total  cost  estimated  at  32  mil- 
lion dollars. 

There  have  been  put  forward,  in  recent  years,  not 
less  than  a  dozen  distinct  transandean  railroad  pro- 
jects, all  but  two  south  of  the  present  line.  One  of 
these  would  be  an  extension  of  the  Chilean  East- 
Central  Railways,  with  present  terminal  at  the  port 
of  Lubu.  Conception  and  Talcahunao,  further  north, 
would  be  made  the  terminal  of  the  new  system,  which 
would  run  southeastward,  and  use  the  State  Line  from 
LosSauces  to  Curacautin  for  110  kilometres.  An  exten- 
tion  would  be  built  at  a  cost  of  some  15  million  dol- 
lars through  the  Longuimay  pass  to  join  the  Neuquen 
extension  of  the  Buenos  Ayres  and  Great  Southern 
Railways. 

Another  line,  much  further  south,  which  seems  to  be 
favored  in  Argentina  would  be  a  line  from  Huidiff,  in 
the  Valdivia  Puerto  Montt  railroad.  From  there,  the 
the  San  Martin  Railway  operates  a  road  transporta- 
tion service  to  Rinahue,  on  Lake  Rinahue  (7  miles). 
From  there  a  steamer  runs  to  Chosuenco  (20  miles), 
where  rail  traffic  again  begins  to  Lake  Lacar  (Argen- 
tina) and  steamer  is  again  taken  for  San  Martin  (50 
miles). 

166 


The  company  originally  intended  and  still  hopes 
to  build  a  through  line  from  Ocean  to  Ocean. 

Another  project  which  has  been  much  discussed  is 
the  continuation  of  the  Caldera-Copiapo  line  across  the 
Andes  to  Tinogasta,  Argentina.  This  line  had  already 
been  projected  by  Wm.  Wheelright  70  years  ago  but 
the  idea  found  little  echo  on  the  Argentine  side  of  the 
Cordillera. 

Numerous  local  lines  are  projected  and  some  of  them 
are  actually  being  constructed,  but  none  is  of  general 
interest. 

THE  TRANSANDEAN  RAILWAY 

The  "transandino"  is  and  for  several  years  will  re- 
main the  only  railroad  crossing  the  Andes. 

The  Transandean  Railway  is  not  one,  but  a  combina- 
tion of  several  lines  running  direct  trains  from  Val- 
paraiso and  Santiago  on  the  one  end,  to  Buenos  Ayres 
on  the  other. 

The  following  Railroad  Companies  form  part  of  the 
Transandean:  The  Chilean  Government  Railroads,  as 
far  as  Los  Andes;  The  Chilean  Transandean  Railway, 
from  Los  Andes  to  the  Argentine  border;  the  Argentine 
Transandean  Railway,  from  the  Chilean-Argentine 
border  to  Mendoza;  the  Argentine  Great  Western 
Railway,  from  Mendoza  to  Mercedes;  and  the  Buenos 
Ayres  and  Pacific  Railway,  from  Mercedes  to  Buenos 
Ayres. 

167 


All  these  Companies,  except  the  Chilean  State  Rail- 
ways, are  British,  domiciliated  in  London.  The 
.  General  Manager  of  the  system  has  been  for  several 
years  and  is  Mr.  J.  H.  Hale  White,  in  Santiago. 

The  total  length  of  the  system  is  1443  kilometres, 
a  thousand  miles. 

The  "Transandino"  follows  the  old  "Transandean 
route,"  which  was  the  main  highway  between  Chile 
and  Argentina  already  in  the  days  of  the  Incas.  Later, 
it  became  the  principal  artery  of  traffic  between  the 
Spanish  Settlements  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Peru. 
When  the  Spaniards  began  to  bring  negroes  to  Peru, 
it  became  the  "slave  route"  and  thousands  of  blacks 
have  made  the  journey  on  foot  over  the  Argentine 
pampas  and  over  the  "Cumbre"  of  the  pass. 

After  Argentina  and  Chile  became  independent  from 
Spanish  rule,  both  countries  constructed  highways.,  as 
far  as  feasible,  along  the  route,  and  until  the  opening 
of  the  railroad,  the  journey  was  made  fairly  comfortably 
partly  in  stage  coaches,  partly  on  mule  back.  The 
journey  from  Mendoza  to  Los  Andes  consumed  four 
days. 

The  scenery  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  is  more  than 
interesting— it  is  awe-inspiring.  But  the  tourist  will 
not  lose  in  anyway  by  taking  the  Transandean  Route. 

The  panorama,  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the 
line  between  Mendcza  and  Los  Andes  is  unique  in  the 
world  for  the  variety  and  the  grandeur  of  the  scenery. 

Leaving  behind  exquisite  pastoral  scenes,  the  train 
168 


climbs  up  mountain  sides,  along  rocky  gorges,  at  times 
above  vertiginous  precipices,  past  an  ever  changing 
scenery — audacious  rocks,  snowcapped  peaks  (among 
them  the  Aconcagua,  the  highest  mountain  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere)  turbulent  torrents,  mighty  cata- 
racts and  lovely  waterfalls,  peaceful  lakes  high  up  in 
the  region  of  the  Condor,  near  the  line  of  eternal  snow. 

Only  those  who  have  made  the  journey  can  appre- 
ciate the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking  of  building  the 
Transandean  Railway.  The  towering  Andes,  even  the 
altitude  of  the  Cumbre  (the  high  pass)  for  years  ap- 
peared as  an  insuperable  barrier  destined  to  separate 
for  ever  the  countries  of  the  Pacific  and  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.  But  two  bold  and  clever  men,  Juan  and  Mateo 
Clark,  both  born  in  the  Argentine  of  English  stock, 
not  merely  conceived,  but  set  themselves  about  to 
execute  the  audacious  project  of  uniting  the  two  Oceans 
by  rail. 

The  engineering  and  financial  difficulties  which  had 
to  be  overcome  were  such  as  to  cause  both  railroad  men 
and  capitalists  to  declare  the  project  irrealisable.  How- 
ever, as  usual,  courage  and  perseverance,  coupled  with 
clear  vision  and  good  judgment,  won  in  the  end. 

The  combined  length  of  the  Chilean  and  Argentine 
Transandine  lines  (from  Los  Andes  to  Mendoza)  is 
250  kilometres.  The  altitude  of  the  main  tunnel  at 
the  frontier  is  3205  metres.  The  tunnel  is  3167  metres 
long,  1360  metres  of  which  on  Chilean  territory. 

On  the  summit  of  the  pass  (the  Cumbre),  785  metres 
169 


above  the  level  of  the  tunnel,  at  the  international 
border,  there  is  a  monument  dedicated  to  "Christ  the 
Redeemer,"  which  is  of  much  greater  than  religious  and 
local  significance. 

Less  than  a  generation  ago,  after  a  long  war  between 
Chile  and  Argentina,  and  the  signing  of  a  peace  treaty 
which  did  not  settle  things  right,  both  countries  were 
preparing  for  another  war.  Then  arose  just  a  woman, 
a  mother,  who  formed  a  committee  of  Argentine  women 
who  went  to  visit  a  small  group  of  women  in  Chile. 
They  decided  that  even  if  men  craved  for  the  glory 
of  battle,  the  women  of  both  countries  should  not  give 
any  more  their  fathers,  sons,  husbands,  brothers  to  the 
Moloch  of  War.  The  movement  spread  fast.  The 
difficulties  between  the  two  countries  were  overcome, 
and  peace  in  fact — instead  of  a  mere  peace  in  name — 
was  commemorated  by  the  "Christ  the  Redeemer" 
monument. 

This  'Christ  of  the  Andes"  has  been  placed  there  not 
only  in  a  spirit  of  gratitude,  but  as  a  memento.  Its 
true  meaning  is  "Thou  shalt  not  pass,"  for  any  but 
peaceful  purposes. 

The  Transandean  sections  of  the  "Transandino"  are 
of  meter  guage,  while  both  the  Chilean  State  and 
the  Argentine  connecting  lines  are  of  the  wide  5"  6" 
guage.  This  necessitates  change  of  cars  in  Los  Andes 
and  Mendoza.  As,  in  every  probability,  a  direct  rail- 
road line  will  ere  long  be  constructed  between  Val- 
paraiso and  Santiago,  via  Casa  Blanca,  the  present  line 

170 


will  be  released  to  local  traffic,  for  which  a  wide  guage 
is  unsuitable.  If  a  proposal  of  Mr.  White  is  accepted, 
the  guage  of  the  present  Valparaiso-Santiago  line  will 
be  reduced  to  one  meter,  which  will  permit  the  running 
of  through  trains,  without  change,  from  the  Pacific  to 
the  Atlantic. 

MERCHANT  MARINE 

Chile  has  always  had  an  ambitious  merchant  marine 
program.  In  1918,  there  were  130  steamers  registered 
in  Chile  with  a  total  tonnage  of  69,968. 

During  the  last  two  years,  the  Compania  Sud-Ameri- 
cana  de  Vapores,  the  most  important  Chilean  Company, 
has  acquired  several  vessels,  and  established  direct  ser- 
vices both  to  New  York  and  Europe.  Several  coastwise 
shipping  concerns  have  also  increased  their  fleet  so 
that  the  tonnage  of  Chile  has  probably  been  nearly 
doubled. 

ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 

Of  the  West  Coast  countries  Chile  is  no  doubt,  the 
first  in  industrial  and  commercial  deveolpment,  if 
not  in  natural  resources.  In  the  intensity  of  its 
economic  life  it  certainly  equals,  while  in  the  total 
of  its  developed  wealth  it  is,  among  Latin  American 
countries,  second  only  to  the  much  larger  Brazil  and 
Argentina. 

171 


With  the  exception  of  leather  and  textiles,  the  manu- 
facturing extablishments  of  Chile  are  all  small  and 
even  very  small,  and,  owing  to  labor  and  other  condi- 
tions, the  opening  of  large  factories  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected. 

The  mining  industry  will  be  discussed  in  another 
chapter. 

Agriculturally,  Chile  is  not  as  important  as  Argen- 
tina, Brazil,  Peru  and  even  Uruguay.  The  agricul- 
tural industry  which  is  likely  to  gain  most  in  import- 
ance is  cattle.  Agricultural  exports,  at  present  include 
packing  house  by-products,  wool,  beans,  peas,  lentils, 
bee  products,  chinchilla  and  other  skins,  medicinal 
plants  and  tanning  agents. 

The  money  of  Chile  is  based  on  the  gold  peso 
weighing  0.5991  gram,  of  0.91633  fineness,  which  is  the 
equivalent  of  18  pence  sterling  gold,  or  to  $0.365  U.  S. 
gold.  This  gold  peso  is  the  unit  for  exchange  and  all 
financial  transactions.  There  are  5,  10  and  20  peso 
gold  coins,  but  they  are  practically  never  seen  in  cir- 
culation. 

Legal  tender  is  paper  currency  whose  value  fluctu- 
ates much  in  spite  of  endeavors  of  the  government  to 
stabilize  it  as  close  as  possible  to  the  value  of  10  pence. 
The  law  provides  that  the  Government  should  set 
aside  yearly  a  certain  sum  to  increase  the  fund  for  the 
redemption  of  paper  currency,  but  war  and  post-war 
conditions  have  prevented  an  appreciable  increase  of 
that  fund. 

172 


CHAPTER  X 


CHARACTER  TRAITS 

The  present  population  of  Chile  is  conservatively 
estimated  at  four  millions,  a  very  much  larger  pro- 
portion of  which  than  on  other  West  Coast  Countries 
is  of  pure  European  stock — mainly  Spanish. 

On  landing  in  Valparaiso,  the  stranger  coming  from 
the  North  at  once  notices  an  alertness  of  manners  and 
of  gait  alien  to  Peru.  It  is  not  quite  the  hustle  of 
Chicago,  but  if  Buenos  Ayres  is  likened  to  the  Windy 
City  for  the  phenomenal  growth  of  its  Meat  Industry, 
Valparaiso  may  with  some  justice  be  called  the  Chicago 
of  South  America  for  its  hustle,  and  greater  apparent 
activity  than  other  Latin  American  cities. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  Peruvian  is  inclined  to 
mannerism  and  that  the  Chilean  is  more  direct  at  first 
approach,  and  indeed,  many  Chileans  are  at  time 
found  rather  abrupt.  The  fact  is  that  they  appre- 
ciate genuine  good  breeding  quite  as  much  as  other 
people,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  more  than  otherLatins 
they  dislike,  and  even  resent,  the  parvenu  airs  of 

173 


many  of  the  newly  rich  of  Argentina  and  the  air  of 
superiority  of  the  would-be  rich  North  American. 


CAUSES  OF  CHARACTER  DIFFERENCES 

The  causes  of  the  principal  peculiarities  of  character 
of  the  Chileans  are  geographical,  racial,  historical  and 
economic. 

On  the  one  side,  the  Chileans  have  one  of  the  highest 
mountain  ranges  and  on  the  other  the  largest  Ocean. 
In  the  North  there  is  an  almost  impassable  desert, 
and  in  the  south  the  Antarctic  wastes.  No  people  of 
any  nation  is  as  completely  hemmed  in  by  natural 
barriers,  and  no  wonder  they  have  gradually  developed 
self-reliance  and  a  tendency  to  be  always  on  the  alert, 
on  the  defensive,  and  always  ready  to  take  the  offensive 
should  the  occasion  require  it. 

Another  geographical  factor  is  that  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  Chileans  live  within  sight  of  the  sea,  and 
have  seen  the  sea,  with  its  wide  horizon,  and  have 
gained  thereby  a  bigger,  broader  mental  vision  of  the 
world  than  the  people  of  some  other  countries. 

In  what  is  now  Peru,  the  Spaniards  found  a  docile 
industrious  race,  which  they  conquered  almost  without 
a  fight  and  enslaved  with  little  difficulties.  But,  further 
south,  they  met  warlike  Indians,  and  they  had  to 
conquer  with  the  sword  almost  every  foot  of  the  ground 
they  occupied. 

174 


Moreover,  the  Araucanian  was  a  clever  hunter  and 
fisher,  but  not  a  worker.  He  was  untrained,  unac- 
customed and  incapable  of  any  kind  of  intensive, 
regular  work.  This  forced  the  early  settlers  of  Chile 
to  do  much  hard  work  themselves,  just  as  the  settlers 
of  North  America. 

An  important  factor  in  the  racial  make-up,  and 
hence  in  the  character  of  the  Chilean,  is  a  considerable 
colonial  European  immigration  other  than  Spanish. 
Two  or  three  centuries  ago,  many  English,  Irish  and 
Germans  settled  in  Chile.  Their  blood  is  now  fully 
amalgamated  in  the  "melting  pot"  with  effects  similar 
to  the  United  States. 

Spanish  names  of  unquestionable  English  etimology 
are  rather  common,  Among  the  governing  classes  are 
found  many  such  names  as  O'Higgins,  Cochrane,  Mc- 
Kenna,  Edwards,  Pratt.  They  are  descendants  of 
Colonial  immigrants  and  as  little  British  as  our  Rocse- 
velts  are  Dutch  and  our  Bonapartes  are  French. 

Chile  has  never  had  more  than  a  fraction  of  the 
large  immigration  which  has  populated  other  South 
American  countries  of  the  temperate  zone  (Southern 
Brazil,  Uruguay,  Paraguay  and  Argentina).  On  the 
other  hand,  what  Chile  has  lost  in  quantity,  it  has 
gained  in  quality.  Those  who  came  were  not  at- 
tracted by  the  prospect  of  easily  made  fortunes,  nor 
frightened  by  the  thought  of  hard  work.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  they  were  of  a  better  type  than  the  immigration 
en  masse  which  went  elsewhere  and  they  have  con- 

175 


tributed  to  the  giving  a  different,  stronger  stamp  to 
the  Chilean  character. 

Not  having  had  a  large  immigration  from  among  the 
lowest  races  of  Southern  Europe  and  practically  no 
Jewish  immigrants  from  Poland  and  Russia,  the  "melt- 
ing pot"  has  functioned  more  thoroughly  than  else- 
where. The  people  of  Chile  forms  a  homogenous, 
united  nation  and  they  have  been  free  of  the  many 
conflicts  of  race,  religion  and  language  with  which  the 
United  States  was  confronted. 

It  is  well  to  add  that  a  Chilean  writer,  Nicolas 
Palacios,  bases  his  claim  of  the  superiority  of  the 
Chilean  stock  upon  the  preeminence  of  Northern 
Spanish  blood  among  the  early  colonists. 

Among  the  economic  factors  which  have  influenced 
the  formation  of  Chilean  character  traits  may  be  men- 
tioned that  Chile  does  not  possess  unlimited  fertile 
agricultural  lands  like  other  countries.  Therefore, 
agricultural  development  was  undertaken  from  the 
start  in  an  intensive,  rather  than  in  an  extensive 
manner. 

Then,  Chile  possesses  as  much  natural  wealth  as 
her  neighbors,  but  it  is  so  distributed  and  so  located 
that  it  requires  more  efforts,  and  there  are  greater 
difficulties  to  overcome  to  render  that  wealth  available, 
than  for  instance  in  Peru  and  Bolivia.  This  has 
naturally  had  some  influence  in  the  formation  of 
Chilean  character  traits. 

176 


SE  CONNAITRE,    C'EST  S'AIMER 

Many  U.  S.  Americans  who  go  to  Chile  after  having 
spent  some  time  in  Peru  or  in  other  Latin  American 
countries,  construe  the  greater  reserve,  and  the  lack 
of  expression  of  personal  feelings  toward  them,  as 
antagonism. 

It  is  the  writers  opinion  that  no  Latin  people  more 
sincerely  desire  cordial  relations  with  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  The  Brazilian  is  proud  to  compare  his 
country,  the  Colossus  of  the  South,  with  the  Colossus 
of  the  North.  In  a  similar  mental  attitude,  the  Chilean 
likes  to  be  called  the  Yankee  of  the  South. 

It  is  regretable  that  the  Chileans  see,  rightly  or 
wrongly,  so  many  obstacles  to  the  realization  of  their 
sympathetic  desire  toward  us. 

First  there  is  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

They  recognize  the  necessity  of  American  unity  for 
mutual  protection,  but  they  resent  the  claim  of  the 
United  States  to  be  their  unsolicited  protector. 

Above  all,  they  resent  the  ever  changing  meaning 
and  the  application  of  that  Doctrine  according  to  the 
ideas  of  the  administrations  succeeding  themselves  in 
Washington. 

They  know  well  and  are  willing  to  admit  the  defects 
of  their  political  system,  but  from  what  they  know  of 
ours,  they  conclude  that  we  are  not  much  better  off 
than  they  are  and  that  we  are  rather  poorly  fitted  to 
become  political  reformers. 

177 


They  hear  on  the  one  hand  the  solemn  declaration 
of  American  statesmen  that  we  do  not  want  to  interfere 
in  the  affairs  of  Latin  American  countries.  They  com- 
pare these  words  with  the  scandalous  graft  exposes 
of  the  American  administration  in  San  Domingo,  and 
the  tragedies  of  Haiti.  They  see  these  very  same  states- 
men taking  away  every  vestige  of  automony,  even  the 
municipal  administration,  in  San  Domingo  and  in 
Haiti.  They  know  that  Panama,  Nicaragua  and  Cuba 
are  far  from  being  absolutely  free  countries. 

They  do  not  realize  the  good  intentions,  if  not  the 
good  purpose  of  these  American  interventions.  All 
they  see,  is  American  direct  and  indirect  meddling, 
in  spite  of  the  often  given  word  that  the  U.  S.  does 
not  want  to  interfere  in  Latin  American  internal  affairs, 
and  they  distrust  us. 

Other  causes  of  prejudice  against  North  Americans 
are  economic. 

Quite  wrongly,  Latin  Americans  have  blamed  us  and 
our  supposed  thirst  for  dollars  as  responsible  for  ex- 
change conditions  unfavorable  to  them. 

Then,  they  remember  that  European  exporters 
before  the  war,  gave  their  importers  long  term  credits 
while  the  American  exporter  usually  wants  cash  and 
even  money  in  advance. 

Moreover  American  export  manufacturers  have  often 
been  negligent  or  shown  a  deplorable  ignorance  of  the 
needs  of  South  Americans.  Then,  the  American  ex- 
port business  has  grown  faster  than  men  could  be 

178 


trained  to  rightly  handle  it.  Also,  it  has  largely  been 
taken  up  by  a  foreign  born  element  whose  business 
ethics  are  not  of  the  highest.  The  result  has  been 
criticism  of  American  ignorance,  lax  business  methods 
and  doubt  in  American  honesty. 

The  Chileans  may  be  all  wrong  but  that's  not  the 
point.  The  purpose  of  the  above  is  not  to  criticize  or  to 
judge,  but  to  state  reasons  for  misunderstandings,  so 
they  may  be  overcome. 

Then,  there  is  our  claim  to  be  the  only  "Americans." 
Other  Latin  American  people  have  forgiven  us  stealing 
what  is  also  their  thunder.  They  have  passed  lightly 
over  this  little  bit  of  grabbing  something  immaterial 
with  a  slight,  impatient  movement  of  the  shoulders 
signifying  "Well,  these  Yankees  are  not  well  balanced 
anyway." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Chileans  are  not  quite  as 
satisfied.  At  a  recent  semi-official  meeting  of  soire 
high  government  officials,  prominent  business  men  and 
newspaper  representatives,  the  question  was  discussed 
whether  or  not  to  invite  the  other  nations  and  the 
colonies  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  to  a  Congress  of 
a  certain  industry. 

A  North  American,  who  was  present,  made  the 
motion  that  the  proposed  gathering  should  be  called 

"Pan  American  Congress  of "  At  once,  a  storm 

of  opposition  arose.  After  a  very  brief  discussion  during 
which  it  was  frankly  stated  that  the  name  America  was 
given  to  South  and  not  to  North  America,  that  people 

179 


were  known  as  Americans  in  South  America  several 
generations  before  there  were  colonists  in  the  Northern 
Continent,  and  that  all  nations  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere were  Americans,  the  motion  was  turned  down 
by  acclamation  and  the  name  "American  Congress — " 
was  retained. 

The  number  of  North  Americans  who  go  to  Chile, 
and  of  Chileans  who  visit  the  United  States  is  con- 
tinually increasing,  but  neither  side  learns  as  much 
about  the  good  side  of  the  other  as  they  might,  and  too 
many  are  still  ignorant  of  what  the  other  really  is. 

Americans  who  have  never  left  the  United  States 
are  yet,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  been  written  on  South 
American  countries,  inclined  to  think  of  the  countries 
south  of  us  as  the  lands  of  a  burning  tropical  sun,  of 
pestiferous  jungle  and  unsanitary  cities,  and  of  lazy, 
ignorant,  blood  thirsty  people. 

Latin  Americans  pay  us  back  by  thinking  of  the 
United  States  as  of  the  land  of  things  ridiculously 
big — an  enormous  country,  huge  cities,  great  catas- 
trophes, prodigious  fortunes  and  the  barbaric  splendor 
of  a  people  which  has  no  other  ideals  than  dollars. 

How  untrue,  and  how  unjust ! on  both  sides. 

One  of  the  truest  sayings  is  "se  connaitre,  c'est 
s'aimer"  (to  know  one  another  is  to  love  one  another), 
and  indeed,  with  the  still  prevailing  mutual  ignorance, 
a  better  All  American  feeling  can  hardly  be  expected. 

How  can  we  overcome  the  present  misunderstand- 
ings? 

180 


The  difficulty  is  that,  just  because  of  the  opinion 
the  Chileans  have  formed  of  North  Americans,  they 
continue  to  look  toward  Europe  much  more  than  up 
to  us  for  enlightenment  and  inspiration. 

The  number  of  Chileans  who  speak  three  or  four 
languages  is  considerable.  They  therefore  familiarize 
themselves  quite  easily  with  European  art,  sciences, 
industries  and  the  ways  of  the  people.  Their  vision 
and  their  understanding  of  other  nations  is  therefore, 
usually  greater  and  broader  than  that  of  the  North 
American  of  the  same  class.  This,  obviously,  puts  the 
American  who  goes  to  Chile  at  a  disadvantage  which 
is  not  always  fully  compensated  by  his  greater  ability, 
knowledge  and  experience  in  technical  matters. 

The  Chilean  pride  is  thereby  aroused  and  he  is  not 
likely  to  appreciate  at  their  just  value  the  qualities 
of  the  "yanqui." 

Just  because  of  the  prevailing  misunderstandings, the 
U.  S.  American,  until  he  proves  himself  different,  is 
placed  on  the  same  social  level  as  the  Jew  and  the 
German.  His  qualities  are  admired;  his  superiority 
in  some  ways  is  recognized,  but  he  is  not  prima  facie 
considered  socially  quite  good  enough  to  associate 
with  in  the  intimate  family  circle. 

Hence,  the  North  American  has  too  little  oppor- 
tunities to  observe  real  Chilean  life,  and  he  quite 
wrongly  often  judges  Chile  as  tourists  seeing  only  the 
so-called  Gay  Life  of  Paris  (which  is  supported  almost 
exclusively  by  strangers),  and  concludes  that  France 

181 


is  morally  rotten,  not  knowing  that  the  French  are 
great  lovers  of  family  life. 

The  "Yankee"  sees  the  superficial,  the  outside  and 
compares  it  with  what  he  knows  of  good  and  beautiful 
in  his  country  and  then  forms  an  unfavorable  opinion 
of  Chile  and  the  Chileans. 

Of  course,  this  mutual  prejudice  is,  speaking  frankly 
stupid  and  unworthy  of  the  people  of  two  great  nations. 

We  seem  to  move  within  a  vicious  circle  which  will 
need  time  to  wear  out. 


182 


CHAPTER  XI 


CHILE'S  COAST  AND  PORTS 

Owing  to  its  long  coast  line  and  the  narrowness  of 
its  territory,  water  transportation  will  presumably  be 
always  the  cheapest  means  of  communication  in  the 
greatest  part  of  Chile.  Hence,  the  transportation 
problem,  unlike  that  of  other  countries,  is  not  so  much 
the  building  of  highways  and  of  railroads,  but  of 
adequate  facilities. 

The  greatest  traffic  problem  in  Chile  is  that  most  of 
its  important  ports  are  not  more  than  open  roadsteads. 
There  are  along  the  coast  several  interesting  bays  and 
undeveloped  natural  harbors,  some  of  them  deep  and 
almost  land  locked,  but  they  are  where  ports  are  not 
needed. 

The  Ocean,  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  along  the 
usual  course  of  vessels  plying  between  the  Canal  and 
Valparaiso  is  always  so  pacific,  so  reliable  and  the 
voyage  so  near  useful  landmarks,  that  many  navi- 
gators prefer  this  run  to  any  other. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Ocean,  nearer  the  coast,  is 
183 


almost  constantly  in  fury,  rendering  landing  and  the 
working  of  cargo  in  many  ports  difficult  and  at  times 
impossible.  It  seems  as  if  the  Ocean  surface,  bent  on 
continuing  its  movement  eastward,  was  furious  at  the 
obstacle  offered  by  the  coast,  and  endeavored  to  sur- 
mount it  by  battering  it  heavily  almost  unceasingly, 
and  with  a  force  gathered  all  the  way  from  Australia. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  Chilean  coast  north  of 
Valparaiso  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  Peru.  It 
is  the  same  barren,  melancholic  stretch  of  rock  and 
sand,  alternating  with  huge  mountain  masses  bathing 
their  very  feet  into  the  sea.  It  means  at  first,  an  in- 
teresting study  of  a  great  variety  of  shades  of  brown, 
which,  however,  soon  becomes  monotonous.  And  it  is 
only  the  realization  of  the  great  economic  importance 
of  the  region  which  retains  the  attention. 

From  Talara  to  Arica,  the  coast  runs  in  a  general 
southerly  direction,  but  at  Arica,  the  coast  takes  a 
sudden  turn  and  begins  to  run  almost  due  south, 
almost  as  far  as  the  entrance  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

Arica  is  881  miles  north  of  Valparaiso,  and  35  miles 
southeast  of  the  present  boundary  between  Peru  and 
Chile.  Its  roadstead  is  fairly  well  protected  by  the 
MOTTO  de  Aiica  (Arica  Head),  of  tragic  history,  and 
by  AlacTan  Island  where,  until  a  few  years  ago,  in- 
teresting Spanish  ruins  were  to  be  seen,  which  since 
have  been  razed  because  of  modern  'military  necessity'. 
Arica's  light  is  exhibited  from  Alacran,  from  a  skeleton 
tower  with  green  coupulo.  It  shows  a  short  flash  every 

184 


3  seconds  visible  14  miles.    Off  the  coast,  toward  the 
north,  the  hull  of  a  wrecked  Chilean  cruiser  is  visible. 

Arica  Bay  is  the  only  point  of  the  long  stretch  of 
coast  we  have  followed  thus  far  which  might  almost  be 
called  picturesque.  At  any  rate,  we  again  see  some 
green  above  the  roofs  of  the  town,  and  there  is  the 
beginning  of  the  fertile  Valley  of  Tacna,  raising  gradual- 
ly from  the  sea.  to  our  left. 

Moreover,  on  a  clear  day,  we  may  enjoy  the  unusual 
and  incomparable  view  of  the  summit  of  three  snow- 
capped mighty  volcanoes,  namely  the  Gran  Misti  of 
Arequipa  18,500  feet  high;  the  Urbinas  17,600  feet  high 
and  the  Tucupaca,  17,300  feet  high. 

All  but  the  summit  of  these  peaks  is  hidden  be- 
hind the  costal  range  of  mountains  bordering  the 
high  plateau  land,  which,  from  our  point  of  vantage, 
usually  appears  like  a  huge  cloud  bank. 

Toward  the  northeast,  beginning  a  short  distance 
from  the  shore,  we  may  notice  a  considerable  expanse 
of  green,  which  is  the  lower  end  of  the  Tacna  Valley; 
38  miles  inland  is  the  town  of  Tacna,  at  1840  feet 
altitude  at  the  junction  of  two  other  valleys  that  of 
Azapa,  and  that  of  Chacayuta. 

Tacna  has  28,000  inhabitants  and  it  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  which  is  held  by 
Chile,  but  claimed  by  Peru.  The  entire  population  of 
the  province  is  only  45,000,  and  it  does  not  produce 

185 


sufficient  food  for  the  maintenance  of  its  scant  popula- 
tion and  of  the  military  garrison. 

However,  the  province  is  minerally  rich  and  desposits 
of  a  variety  of  valuable  minerals  has  been  determined. 
Nevertheless,  Tacna  seems  to  be  claimed  by  Peru  on 
sentimental  rather  than  economic  grounds.  While  its 
retention  by  Chile  is  explained  as  a  military  necessity. 
An  almost  impassable  100  miles  long  desert  separates 
the  present  territory  of  Peru  from  the  Province  of 
Tacna  and  Chileans  claim  that  they  need  Tacna  to 
protect  themselves  against  possible  attacks  from  the 
side  of  Peru. 

Nevertheless,  the  writer  has  heard  Chilean  high 
Government  officials  express  the  wish  that  some 
arrangement  be  arrived  at  to  bring  about  a  better 
feeling  between  the  two  countries.  Chileans  state  that 
the  idea  of  returning  Tacna  to  Peru  cannot  even  be 
discussed.  On  the  other  hand  they  say  that  if  Peru 
would  consent  to  it,  Chile  might  grant  the  province 
to  Bolivia  for  a  consideration. 

The  essential  condition  for  such  an  arrangement 
would  be  that  both  Peru  and  Bolivia  be  perfectly 
satisfied  with  it.  But  for  as  long  as  the  present 
animosity  of  these  countries  toward  Chile  remains,  it 
is  positively  stated  that  Chile  will  maintain  the  statu 
quo. 

When  rumors  of  the  possibility  of  such  an  arrange- 
ment reached  Mollendo,  Peru,  as  well  as  Antofagasta, 

186 


Chile,  both  ports,  fearing  loss  of  the  transit  trade  to 
Bolivia,  opposed  the  idea  vigorously. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  Arica  is  not  merely  the  sea  out- 
let for  the  province  of  Tacna,  but  one  of  the  three  sea 
ports  for  Bolivia.  It  is  the  Pacific  terminal  of  the 
shortest  of  the  three  railroads  connecting  La  Paz  with 
the  sea,  but  the  least  used.  It  has  frequently  been 
characterized  as  one  of  the  two  worse  railroads  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  the  other  being  in  Haiti. 

The  railroad  was  built  by  Chile,  in  conformity  with 
the  treaty  of  Ancon,  at  the  termination  of  the  war 
between  Peru  and  Bolivia  on  the  one  side  and  Chile 
on  the  other,  in  1879.  It  is  248  miles  long,  129  miles 
of  which  on  Chilean  territory.  The  highest  elevation 
is  at  an  altitude  of  4257  metres  or  13,936  feet.  It 
has  cost  $15,000  to  build.  The  line  is  operated  by  a 
British  Company. 

It  is  only  a  short  night's  run  from  Arica  to  Iquique, 
and  between  these  two  important  ports  are  three  small 
and  yet  interesting  ports. 

Pisagua  is  the  northernmost  nitrate  port,  it  is  located 
67  miles  south  of  Arica  and  40  miles  north  of  Iquique 
by  sea  and  114  miles  by  rail,  at  the  foot  of  lofty  hills. 
The  port  claims  to  be  second  only  to  Iquique  in  the 
shipment  of  nitrates,  but  the  town  is  much  less  im- 
portant, with  only  8000  inhabitants.  The  railroad 
climbs  up  the  hill  sides  in  several  zig  zags,  and  when  on 
the  high  plateau  the  rich  lands  of  Tarapaca,  forms  a 

187 


part  of  the  Longitudinal  railroad  with  spurs  running 
down  to  the  coast  to  Caleta  Buena  and  Iquique.      . 

Caleta  Junin  is  the  port  for  Junin  Alto,  (a  small 
town  on  the  top  of  the  cliffs,  an  inclined  cable  railway 
maintaining  communications,)  and  also  for  the  nitrates 
from  La  Pampa  Oficina. 

Caleta  Buena,  20  miles  north  of  Iquique,  has  re- 
placed Mejillones  del  Norte  as  a  nitrate  port.  There 
are  two  towns,  each  of  about  1500  inhabitants,  one 
near  the  coast,  the  other,  visible  from  the  sea,  on  the 
bluff  above.  A  21  miles  long  railway  runs  to  Agua 
Santa  Oficina. 

A  NEAT  LITTLE  CITY 

Iquique  784  miles  north  of  Valparaiso  ranks  fourth 
among  Chilean  ports  and  fifth  in  population  among 
Chilean  cities.  It  is  the  first  nitrate  port  of  the  country. 
Besides  nitrates,  considerable  quantities  of  silver  are 
shipped  from  the  famous  Huantajays  mines,  only  ten 
miles  away,  which  have  been  operated  350  years  and 
have  produced  above  half  a  billion  worth  of  the  precious 
metal,  more  than  the  famous  silver  mountain  of  Potosi, 
in  Bolivia.  Hay  is  also  shipped  from  the  Pampa  de 
Tamarugal,  in  the  season. 

Iquique  road  is  unprotected  in  the  north  and  only 
imperfectly  protected  in  the  southwest  by  Iquique 

189 


island  and  Morro  Point.  Extensive  port  works  were 
surveyed  before  the  War,  but,  except  for  desultory 
activities,  they  have  remained  in  abeyance.  Iquique 
light  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  is  exhibited  96  feet 
above  water  from  an  iron  structure.  It  shows  a  flash 
every  12  seconds  and  it  is  visible  14  miles. 

From  Iquique,  a  standard  guage  railroad,  244  miles 
long  runs  to  Lagunas,  passing  through  some  of  the 
most  important  nitrate  fields,  another  line,  mentioned 
above,  runs  to  Pisagua,  114  miles. 

The  city  of  Iquique  has  a  little  larger  population  than 
Antofagasta,  though,  commercially,  the  latter  has  be- 
come more  important.  It  vies  with  the  latter  in  an  effort 
to  become  beautiful  in  spite  of  arid  climate,  dust  and 
other  adverse  circumstances.  It  appears  to  have  been 
more  successful  than  Antofagasta  in  creating  boulevards 
and  public  gardens  and  it  has  the  advantage  over  the  lat- 
ter of  picturesque  small  beaches  and  rocks  at  the  end  of 
the  Cavancha  prominade  and  gardens,  the  earth  for 
which  had  to  be  brough  down  from  the  Pampa  at  great 
expense. 

The  water  supply  of  Iquique  comes  from  the  Pica 
springs  75  miles  in  the  mountains,  In  addition,  two 
distillation  plants  are  kept  in  working  order  so  as  to 
be  able  to  use  sea  water  in  case  of  emergency. 

The  region  around  Iquique  differs  from  the  rest  of  the 
coast  in  that,  during  the  last  century,  it  has  oc- 
casionally been  visited  by  storms.  Peculiar  in  that 

190 


they  are  usually  followed  by  copious  rain.  Within  a 
few  days  afterwards,  the  otherwise  barren  hills  become 
covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  which,  however,  is 
only  short-lived. 

Strangers  should  see  the  Cavancha  Promenade  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  horse  car  line.  The  Chalet 
Suisse,  with  bath  houses,  near  the  beach,  is  probably 
the  best  place  in  Iquique  for  refreshments  and  for 
luncheon. 

Tocopilla,  117  miles  south  of  Iquique  is  a  port  of 
the  Chile  Copper  Co.  and  otherwise  unimportant.  Ore 
is  shipped  from  three  points  on  Tocopilla  road,  namely 
Tocopilla,  Bella  Vista,  and  Duendes,  each  about  \]/2 
miles  from  one  another. 


Cobija,  also  known  as  Puerto  La  Mar,  37  miles 
south  of  Tocopilla,  is  a  port  for  a  mining  region  which 
produces  copper,  tin  and  silver.  A  35  mile  long  rail- 
road line  runs  up  to  Toco,  a  town  of  some  5000  popula- 
tion. 


Mejillones  (also  known  as  Mej  ill  ones  del  Sur — in 
contradistinction  with  Caleta  Buena  which  is  also  called 
Mejillones,  but  del  norte)  is  31  miles  south  of  Cobija, 
43  miles  north  of  Antofagasta  by  rail,  and  61  miles 
from  the  latter  by  sea.  It  serves  practically  the  same 

191 


district  as  Antofagasta,  but  shippers  seem  to  prefer 
the  latter.  A  branch  of  the  Bolivian  Railways  runs 
from  Mejillones  joining  the  line  from  Antofagasta  28 
miles  inland.  Before  the  War,  port  works  were  sur- 
veyed. 

Leading  Bluff,  marks  the  westernmost  point  of  the 
southshore  of  Mejillones  Bay.  It  is  a  remarkable  head- 
land, about  1000  feet  high,  facing  north,  covered  with 
guano  and  having  the  appearance  of  a  chalky  cliff. 
Leading  Bluff  light  is  exhibited  335  feet  above  water, 
flashes  every  3  seconds,  and  is  visible  18  miles. 

A  few  miles  to  the  south,  we  see  the  Morro  Mejil- 
lones, 2476  feet  high,  standing  conspicuously  above 
the  surrounding  heights,  having  the  appearance  of  a 
trunkated  cone. 

From  Leading  Bluff,  we  sail  with  the  land  for  about 
30  miles  to  Tetas  Point,  the  southwestern  extremity 
of  the  Moreno  Peninsula,  from  which  a  light  is  ex- 
hibited 155  feet  above  water,  showing  2  flashes  every 
6  seconds,  visible  18  miles.  From  the  point  and  ad- 
jacent waters,  Mount  Moreno  rises  almost  abruptly 
from  the  sea  to  an  altitude  of  4161  feet. 

From  Tetas  point,  the  coast  takes  a  sharp  turn  east- 
ward, forming  a  well  protected  bay  in  the  deep  of  which 
is  the  village  and  little  port  of  Chimba  which,  as 
Mejillones,  has  endeavored  to  compete  with  Antofa- 
gasta and  lost.  Its  cove  is  well  protected  by  the  islet 
of  Guaman  and  it  would  make  a  commodious,  very 
good  port.  Concessions  for  port  works  were  recently 

192 


granted  to  a  nitrate  company  and  a  railway  will  be 
built  connecting  Chimba  with  the  Bolivian  Railways, 
but  the  concession  was  granted  under  the  express  con- 
dition that  only  nitrates  will  be  shipped  from  Chimba. 
In  the  region  between  Chimba  and  Tetas  point 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  prehistoric  people  have 
been  found,  who  must  have  lived  there  before  the  arid 
period  begun. 

A  BUSY  PLACE 

Antofagasta  disputes  Iquique's  claim  to  be  the 
third  port  of  Chile.  According  to  the  last  census,  it 
has  only  65,000  inhabitants  to  Iquique's  70,000,  but 
patriotic  citizens  of  Antofagasta  claim  that  conditions 
have  been  reversed.  No  statistics  are  available  to 
show  conclusively  which  of  the  two  cities  is  ahead  of 
the  other. 

Antofagasta  seems  to  be  more  important  commercial- 
ly. It  has  larger  business  houses,  more,  larger  and 
better  stores  and  there  is  more  hustling  on  its  main 
streets  than  in  Iquique,  and  an  air  of  prosperity  pre- 
vails at  every  turn.  On  the  other  hand,  Antofagasta 
has  not  yet  succeeded  in  adorning  itself  as  well  as  the 
sister  city  and.  from  a  scenic  point  of  view,  it  has 
little  to  show. 

The  town  is  built  on  gradually  and  very  regularly 
rising  ground  toward  the  foot  of  the  surrounding  moun- 
tains. It  seems  to  take  a  sudden  turn  upward  at  the 

193 


edge  of  the  town.  There  is  practically  not  a  single 
level  spot  in  the  whole  area  two  blocks  above  the  port, 
and  yet  not  a  depression  in  the  ground  anywhere. 
Hence  no  city  on  the  entire  coast  can  be  seen  as  well 
from  the  sea  and  offers  as  beautiful  a  spectacle  at  night. 

No  city  in  the  world  obtains  its  water  supply  as  far 
and  under  as  great  difficulties  as  Antofagasta.  Water 
is  carried  in  pipes  from  the  Rio  Loa,  near  the  Bolivian 
border  173  miles  away.  The  city  now  boasts  of  a 
thousand  miles  of  water  pipes. 

An  interesting  ride  is  to  the  new  Boulevard  and 
Praya  Blanca,  where  there  are  facilities  for  sea  bathing. 
A  very  good  automobile  road  has  been  made  to  Caleta 
Celosa.  Strangers  are  welcome  at  the  automobile  club, 
an  oasis  of  green  in  an  ocean  of  brown,  midway  between 
Antofagasta  and  Caleta. 

The  principal  Hotel  in  Antofagasta  is  the  Grand,  on 
the  main  public  square,  on  which  the  Post  Office  and 
the  Telegraph  are  also  located. 

TERMINAL  OF  BOLIVIAN  RAILWAYS 

The  Bolivian  Railways,  of  2  feet  6  guage,  have  their 
terminal  in  Antofagasta  are  the  most  popular  route 
to  La  Paz.  The  line  reaches  its  highest  elevation  near 
Ollague,  at  3960  metres,  or  12,989  feet. 

Antofagasta  roadstead  is  one  of  the  poorest  anchor- 
ages of  the  West  Coast.  It  is  nearly  as  bad  as  those 
of  Mollendo  and  Salaverry,  and,  before  port  works  to 

194 


cost  some  30,000,000  pesos  were  projected  and  surveyed 
it  has  been  a  question  to  move  the  port  to  Chimba,  just 
mentioned.  The  projected  port  works,  as  many  others, 
were  kept  in  obeyance,  but  since  the  Armistice  sec- 
tional bids  have  been  let  for  part  of  the  work,  which 
is  progressing  slowly. 

Much  nitrate  is  shipped  from  Antofagasta,  mainly 
from  the  region  around  Calama.  It  is  also  the  main 
shipping  point  for  the  Chuquicamata  copper  mines, 
on  the  mountain  sides  beyond  Calama.  These  mines 
are  the  largest  copper  mines  in  the  world  as  concerns 
the  quantity  of  ore  treated  and  the  number  of  men 
employed.  The  ore  is  very  poor — containing  only 
2-3%  copper — but  self  leaching  so  that  metallic  copper 
can  be  produced  there  cheaper  than  elsewhere.  Dur- 
ing the  war,  some  20,000  people  were  employed  there, 
including  some  800  Americans. 

Until  the  end  of  the  three  cornered  war  between 
Chile,  Peru  and  Bolivia,  1878-79,  Antofagasta  was  part 
of  Bolivia.  That  country  still  claims  it,  but  not  as 
strongly  as  Peru  claims  Tacna.  As  a  matter  of  fact» 
there  are  only  very  few  Bolivians  in  Antofagasta,  and, 
even  if  held  at  the  date  originally  fixed,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  plebiscite  would  have  been  in  favor  of 
Chile. 

Antofagasta  is  flanked  by  two  landmarks  of  very 
similar  shapes,  Mt.  Moreno,  4161  feet  high,  mentioned 
on  previous  pages,  and  Cerro  Grande  (Mount  Jaron) 

195 


3800  feet  high,  both  huge  cones,  rising  almost  abruptly 
from  the  sea. 

At  the  foot,  north  of  Mount  Jaron  lies  the  little  port 
of  Caleta  Celosa,  only  five  miles  from  Antofagasta, 
and  while  passing  we  can  easily  distinguish  the  sheds 
of  the  Aguas  Blancas  railway  which  runs  to  nitrate 
properties  in  the  interior. 

Taltal,  the  next  interesting  port,  is  110  miles  south 
of  Antofagasta,  and  445  miles  north  of  Valparaiso.  It 
is  the  terminal  of  a  British  owned  system  of  railroads 
totaling  184  miles  running  first  to  Cachinal,  then  to  the 
famous  El  Guanaco  gold  district.  In  the  region  are 
said  to  be  considerable  areas  of  undeveloped  nitrate 
lands,  as  well  as  copper,  gold,  silver  and  other  ores. 

Taltal  is  the  southernmost  of  the  nitrate  ports.  The 
town  has  some  20,000  inhabitants,  is  well  laid  out,  but 
appears  more  dusty  than  other  Chilean  coast  towns  of 
the  arid  region. 

Charanal,  46  miles  north  of  Caldera,  on  the  border 
of  the  desert  of  Atacama  is  the  shipping  point  for  three 
copper  smelters.  The  Andes  Mining  Co.,  (American) 
contemplates  considerable  harbor  works  and  with  the 
development  of  cobalt,  gold,  silver  and  borax  deposits 
in  the  interior,  the  port  will  gain  in  importance.  The 
railroad  line  runs  from  Charanal  to  Hundide  and  joins 
the  Copiapo -Caldera  section  of  the  Longitudinal 
Railways. 

196 


OLDEST  L.-A.   RAILROAD 

Caldera,  337  miles  north  of  Valparaiso, on  Ingles  bay, 
one  of  the  best  sheltered  ports  of  northern  Chile,  is  the 
port  for  Copiapo  and  it  exports  gold,  silver,  manganese 
and  copper.  The  copper  mines  in  the  interior  are  now 
worked  at  a  depth  of  3500  feet,  and  it  is  said  to  be  the 
deepest  mining  in  the  Americas.  Copiapo,  50  miles 
away  is  a  curious  mixture  of  the  old,  one  might  almost 
say  the  antique  and  the  new.  On  one  end  old  buildings 
from  Spanish  times,  old  conservative  customs,  and  on 
the  other  the  hustle  and  bustle  incidental  to  reirirg 
booms  and  even  a  modern  school  of  mines. 

Copiapo  is  the  center,  and  Caldera  the  sea  terminal 
of  an  important  system  of  railways.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  railroad  from  Caldera  to  Copiapo  is 
the  oldest  of  all  Latin  American  countries.  The  oldest 
line  in  South  America  was  opened  a  year  earlier,  in 
1848,  in  Demerara,  British  Guiana. 

The  Caldera-Copiapo  line  was  built  with  Chilean 
Capital  by  an  American,  William  Wright,  who  later, 
associated  with  Allan  Campbell — another  American — 
surveyed  the  Valparaiso-Santiago  Railroad  which, 
later  again,  was  built  by  two  other  Americans,  first 
S.  W.  Greene  of  Rhode  Island,  and  completed  by  the 
famous  Henry  Meiggs, 

An  extension  of  the  Caldera-Copiapo  Railroad  across 
the  Andes  to  Tinogasta,  Argentina,  has  been  projected 
from  the  start,  and  discussed  for  many  years. 

197 


Caldera  is  the  winter  station  for  the  Chilean  Navy 
Caldera  light,  one  flash  every  20  seconds,  is  visible 
14  miles. 

Carizal  Bajo,  73  miles  south  of  Caldera,  92  miles 
north  of  Huasco,  is  the  outlet  for  three  smelting  plants, 
serving  in  part  the  same  region  in  the  interior  as  that 
served  by  Huasco.  A  23  miles  long  railroad  line  runs 
to  Carizal  Atlo,  with  a  63  miles  branch  to  the  Cerro 
Blanco  copper  mines,  a  53  miles  branch  to  Jarillas 
copper  deposits,  now  exhausted,  and  another  to  the 
Yerba  Buana  manganese  works. 

Huasco,  about  60  miles  south  of  Caldera  and  40 
miles  north  of  Coquimbo,  is  on  a  well  protected  small 
bay.  The  scenery  about  the  town  and  the  poot 
has  a  picturesque,  green  appearance  to  which  one  is 
not  accustomed  when  sailing  along  this  coast.  Minerals, 
live  stock,  grapes  and  raisins,  as  well  as  hay,  are  the 
principal  articles  of  export.  Huasco  is  the  port  for 
Vallenar,  the  capital  of  the  province  and  the  region 
is  the  northern  limit  of  successful  agriculture  without 
irrigation.  Huasco  grapes  and  raisins  are  claimed  to 
be  the  sweetest  in  the  world.  The  railway  runs  north 
to  Vallenar,  where  it  joins  the  Longitudinal  System  cf 
Chile.  A  9  miles  long  branch  runs  to  Freirina,  where 
gold,  copper  and  manganese  are  mined  in  a  small  way. 
A  7  miles  long  branch  runs  from  Vallenar  to  Agua 
Amarga  silver  mine,  and  another  to  the  Santa  Rosa 
copper  mines. 

198 


A  few  miles  south  of  Kusaco,  we  pass  Chanaral 
Island  light  (not  to  be  confounded  with  Chanaral 
port),  one  flash  every  6  seconds,  visible  14  miles. 

Cruz  Grande,  130  miles  north  of  Valparaiso,  is  the 
most  important  new  port  development  on  the  west 
coast.  The  Bethlehem  Steel  Company  purchased  the 
Tofo  iron  mines  from  a  French  Company.  They  con- 
sist in  the  main  in  a  mountain  of  hematite  iron  ore, 
only  15  kilometres  from  the  sea  shore.  The  company 
has  spent  considerable  money  in  improvements,  but 
at  present  no  ore  is  shipped. 

About  25  miles  north  of  Coquimbo,  some  12  miles 
off  shore,  we  pass  the  Pajaros  Islets  100  and  150  feet 
high  respectively.  On  one  of  them,  in  Lat.  29.34,  is 
a  light  exhibited  148  feet  above  water,  flashing  2 
seconds  every  20  seconds,  visible  14  miles. 

THE  END  OF  THE  ARID  ZONE 

Coquimbo,  200  miles  north  of  Valparaiso,  is  a  port 
and  town  of  considerable  importance,  serving  as  gate- 
way for  La  Serena,  just  "next  door"  to  it,  also  on  the 
sea  shore,  but  on  a  sandy  beach  unsuitable  for  shipping. 
Both  towns  together  have  a  population  of  nearly 
50,000.  In  contrast  with  other  Chilean  ports  and 
towns  we  have  passed  thus  far,  Coquimbo-La  Serena 
are  very  hilly  and  located  at  the  foot  and  up  cliffs. 

Gold,  silver,  cobalt,  copper,  manganese  and  some 
iron  are  shipped  from  Coquimbo.  The  famous  placer 

199 


mines  of  Andacallo  are  located  some  28  miles  away 
and  in  the  district  are  also  the  famous  shrines  of  the 
same  name,  visited  annually  at  the  feast  of  the  Rosary, 
by  thousands  of  pilgrims,  even  from  Argentina  and 
Bolivia. 

Ovalle,  a  city  of  17,000  inhabitants,  in  the  Limari 
valley,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  the  same 
name,  is  connected  with  Coquimbo  by  a  70  miles  long 
railroad. 

When  coming  from  the  north,  the  region  of  Coquimbo 
is  the  first  where  it  rains  regularly.  During  the  winter 
months,  several  heavy  showers  take  place.  While, 
during  the  summer,  the  country  appears  as  arid  as 
that  we  have  just  passed,  a  few  days  after  the  first 
rain  everything  becomes  green  almost  suddenly.  The 
precipitation  often  reaches  12  inches  and  even  more 
in  two  days. 

Coquimbo  light,  one  flash  every  2  seconds,  is  visible 
10  miles. 

La  Serena  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Chile,  having 
been  founded  in  1544.  It  has  retained  the  character 
of  an  old  Spanish  town,  with  quaint  old  buildings  and 
a  stately  cathedral.  It  is  favored  with  a  fresh  water 
supply  from  the  Itaca  River.  A  pretty  trip  by  rail 
is  up  the  Elqui  Valley,  picturesque  by  comparison, 
and  the  center  of  a  great  wine  industry.  Only  two 
miles  from  La  Serena  are  the  Brillador  Copper  mines, 
and  80  miles  further  the  Panulcillo  copper  mines. 

200 


Guayaquan  is  from  a  custom  point  of  view,  but 
not  geographically,  a  port  different  from  Coquimbo. 
It  serves  a  copper  smelter  and  the  first  sulphuric  acid 
plant  established  in  Chile. 

Tongoi  a  few  miles  south  of  Coquimbo,  is  the 
shipping  point  for  a  smelter  and  copper  mines  in  the 
interior. 

Lengua  de  Vaca  Point  Light,  near  Tongoi  Bay,  41 
miles  south  of  Coquimbo,  2  flashes  every  30  seconds, 
visible  16  miles. 

Penitente  Rock  Light,  2  flashes  every  6  seconds, 
visible  12  miles,  located  in  Lat.  31.52. 

Huevos  Island  Light,  64  miles  north  of  Valparaiso, 
shows  one  flash  every  2  seconds.  Although  a  light 
of  the  6th  order,  it  is  visible  10  miles. 

Valparaiso  approaches  may  easily  be  recognized. 
When  about  two  hours  out,  we  pass  low  brown  cliffs, 
followed  by  a  white  beach,  with  more  low  brown  cliffs 
following.  Later  we  have  again  a  sandy  beach  and 
a  small  bay  and  then  reddish  cliffs  which  are  5  miles 
from  Valparaiso. 

Valparaiso  Light,  a  group  of  three  short  flashes, 
showing  every  30  seconds,  is  visible  15  miles. 

201 


"EL  PUERTO" 

Valparaiso,  the  principal  port  and  second  city  of 
Chile  is  located  at  about  the  same  latitude  as  Santiago, 
Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo,  on  the  beautiful  semi- 
circular bay  of  Almendral.  It  is  well  sheltered  except 
towards  the  north  but,  during  the  winter  months,  when 
the  trades  blow  from  the  northeast,  ships  riding  in  the 
harbor  are  often  exposed  to  a  heavy  rolling  sea.  Port 
works  to  cost  many  millions  were  begun  before  the 
war.  The  difficulty  in  making  Valparaiso  a  better 
port  is  the  great  depth  of  the  water  to  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  shore. 

The  population  of  Valparaiso,  given  at  280,000  is 
more  cosmopolitan  than  that  of  other  cities  of  the  West 
Coast  and  it  differs  much  also  in  characteristics  from 
other  Latin  American  cities.  Many  writers  say  that 
the  "manana"  rule  prevails  here  as  well  as  elsewhere 
and  joke  more  or  less  funnily  about  the  difference  of 
"ora  inglesa"  and  "ora  Chilena"  when  making  ap- 
pointments. Nevertheless,  the  stranger  landing  here 
cannot  fail  to  notice  a  hustle  and  bustle  unknown  else- 
where in  Latin  American  countries. 

The  only  first  class  hotel  in  Valparaiso  is  the  Royal, 
Calle  Esmeraldas,  under  the  same  management  as  the 
Savoy  and  the  Grand  in  Santiago. 

Much  of  Valparaiso  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake on  August  15,  1906. 

"Down  Town"  Valparaiso  has  been  partly  built  on 
202 


fills,  whereby  the  level  of  Almendral  Beach  has  been 
raised  from  12  to  20  feet.  Above  the  lower  town,  rises 
the  upper  city  amphitheater-like,  the  ground  cut  up  by 
deep  gullies  leaving  numerous  hills  and  hummocks 
between  them. 

Communications  between  the  various  parts  of  the 
upper  town  are  difficult,  but  much  has  been  done  to 
overcome  the  difficulties  caused  by  local  topography. 
Several  cable  railways  connect  the  lower  with  the 
upper  city.  Circular  roads  have  been  built  connecting 
several  hills  with  one  another  and  much  masonry  work 
has  been  done  to  prevent  slides  and  erosion. 

A  BEAUTIFUL  CITY 

Santiago,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  lies  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Mapocho,  at  555  metres  (1821  feet) 
altitude,  188  kilometres  (117  miles)  from  Valparaiso 
by  rail.  Its  area,  bordered  on  the  one  side  by  the  coast 
range  and  on  the  other  by  the  majestic  Andes,  snow 
caped  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  can  boast  of 
a  very  agreeable,  equable  climate,  without  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold  and  with  comparatively  few  rainy  or 
cloudy  days. 

The  area  of  the  city  is  about  16  square  miles,  and  in 
laying  it  out  the  block  gridiron  method,  modified  by 
local  requirements,  has  been  adhered  to. 

Santiago  is  third  in  size  among  Latin  American 
cities,  with  600,000  inhabitants.  It  may  also  justly 

203 


be  claimed  to  be  one  of  the  three  cleanest  and  most 
beautiful  large  cities  of  the  New  World  and  of  the 
World,  remarkable  improvements  having  been  accom- 
plished during  the  last  few  years  both  as  concerns 
adornments  and  elimination  of  ugly  spots.  Moreover, 
no  city  in  the  World  has,  proportionally  as  great  an 
area  of  beautiful  public  parks. 

The  three  principal  hotels  rank  in  the  order  named: 
The  Savoy,  new,  is  one  of  the  very  best  hotels  in  South 
America,  European  plan  only.  The  Grand  Hotel  has 
American  plan  only,  while  the  Odo,  the  oldest  of  the 
three  has  European  Plan  only.  The  best  restaurants 
are  the  Santiago  in  Calle  Huerfanos  and  the  Savoy, 
Calle  Agustinas. 

NOT  ROBINSON'S  ISLAND 

Chile  possesses  far  from  its  shores  a  number  of  islands 
two  of  which  are  of  unusual  interest. 

Juan  Fernandez,  370  miles  west  of  Valparaiso  is 
the  island  where,  two  centuries  ago,  the  mutined  sailor 
Selkirk  was  cast  away. 

Daniel  Defoe  took  his  lonely  life  for  the  theme  of  his 
Robinson  Crusoe,  but  it  has  now  been  well  established 
that  the  scene  of  the  famous  novel  was  laid  on  Tobago, 
an  island  north  of  Trinidad,  British  W.  I.,  which  Defoe 
knew  well,  and  not  on  Juan  Fernandez. 

Juan  Fernandez  is  13  miles  long  and  4  miles  at  its 
widest.  Some  of  its  valleys  are  very  fertile,  but  the 

204 


only  important  agricultural  indusry  is  cattle  and  pig 
raising. 

The  Chilean  Government  maintains  a  light  house  and 
a  wireless  station  on  the  island;  a  small  steamer  plies 
monthly  around  the  island  and  maintains  means  of 
communications  with  Valparaiso. 

A  tablet  at  the  Government  House,  commemorates 
Juan  Fernandez  first  Colonist  the  sailor  Selkirk. 

Easter  Island  lies  north  and  west  of  Juan  Fernandez, 
It  is  interesting  especially  because  of  the  carved  statues, 
many  of  them  of  large  size,  found  scattered  all  over  the 
island.  They  are,  in  character,  unlike  any  other  monu- 
ments found  anywhere  in  the  world  and  they  apparently 
were  left  there  by  an  unknown  race  for  unknown 
reasons. 

Chile  possesses  several  other  islands  in  the  Pacific. 
None  of  them  of  importance,  either  economically  or 
from  a  strategic  point  of  view.  Nevertheless,  Chile 
is  very  jealous  of  their  possession  and  she  never  fails 
to  assert  her  authority  over  them,  whenever  there  is 
a  tendency  to  dispute  it. 


205 


CHAPTER  XII 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  MINING 

The  prosperity  of  Chile  is  today — and  for  many 
years  will  continue  to  be — largely  dependent  upon 
the  development  of  its  mineral  wealth,  of  which  an 
American  geologist,  Wm.  G.  H.  Wilson,  recently  said: 
"I  do  not  think  I  am  mistaken  when  I  say  that  Chile 
is  the  richest  country  in  the  world,  in  a  mineral  sense. 
Chileans  do  not  know  what  they  possess."  Indeed, 
what  has  been  said  of  Colombia  applies  also  to  Chile, 
namely,  that  almost  every  known  variety  of  mineral 
is  found  in  the  territory  of  the  Republic,  while  two 
of  them,  nitrates  and  copper,  are  mined  on  a  larger  scale 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

Mining  in  Chile  dates  back  to  the  time,  and  even  be- 
fore the  time,  when  the  aborigenes  paid  their  tribute 
to  the  Peruvian  Incas  in  gold,  which  was  then,  probab- 
ly, the  only  mineral  mined.  During  the  period  of 
Spanish  rule,  it  is  probable  that  only  gold,  silver  and 
mercury  were  mined  and  it  remained  for  Chileans,  with 
the  aid  of  foreign  capital  and  foreign  engineering  ex- 

206 


perience,  to  create  mining  industry  in  the  aggregate 
larger  than  that  of  any  other  country  of  the  same  size. 

INDUCEMENTS  TO  CAPITAL 

Unlike  other  Latin-American  countries,  Chile  has 
refrained  from  placing  a  direct  tax  on  the  mining  of 
metals  as  it  does  upon  the  exports  of  nitrates. 

The  idea  was  that  nitrates  are  without  competition 
while  that  a  tax  upon  the  production  of  various  metals 
concerning  which  other  countries  compete  with  Chile, 
would  repel  instead  of  attracting  foreign  capital  and 
enterprise. 

The  quantity  and  the  value  of  the  mineral  production 
of  Chile,  in  1918,  is  indicated  in  the  following  table. 
Values  indicated  are  in  pesos  gold,  of  a  value  of  about 
35c  American. 

Quantities  Value 

Nitrates 2,859,303  tons   $500,378,025 

Copper 106,813  132,765,586 

Coal 1,516,524  106,156,680 

lodin 1,078,760  kilos       17,864,266 

Silver 47,231  3,752,883 

Gold 1,938  2,178,764 

Sulphur 19,557  tons         3,129,120 

Borax 6,603  1,320,600 

Lime 105,743  1,586,145 

Salt 54,536  1,908,760 

Guano 15,000  600,000 

207 


Nitrates  form  the  principal  source  of  Chile's  natural 
wealth  and  produce  the  largest  part  of  the  revenue  of 
its  Government. 

The  nitrate  zone  embraces  an  area  of  some  450  miles 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  at  distances  from  the  sea 
varying  from  15  to  93  miles  and  at  an  elevation  of  from 
3,000  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  deposits 
are  always  in  rainless,  arid  plains  where — although 
nitrates  are  an  essential  element  of  plant  food — vege- 
tation is  absent.  The  nitrate  belt  varies  in  width  from 
11-2  mile,  in  the  province  of  Tarapaca  to,  in  places, 
as  much  as  30  miles  in  the  region  of  Taltal,  the  richest 
grounds  found  thus  far  being  on  a  low  slope  rising  from 
the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal  towards  the  west. 

There  has  been  much  speculation,  in  scientific  circles, 
how  such  important  deposits  of  nitrates  could  have 
accumulated  within  such  a  small  area.  The  prevailing 
explanation  is  that,  before  rains  ceased  to  fall  in  the 
region,  peculiar  climatic  conditions  must  have  pre- 
vailed there.  Unusually  frequent  and  powerful  flashes 
of  lightning  caused  the  nitrogen  and  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  to  combine,  forming  nitric  acid.  This  found  sodium 
sulphate,  which  was  and  is  still  abundant  in  the 
region.  Because  of  the  greater  affinity  of  nitrogen  for 
sodium  then  for  sulphur,  the  latter  was  freed,  and 
liberated  in  a  gaseous  compound,  leaving  the  solid 
sodium  nitrate. 

All  of  the  nitrates  of  Chile  are  exported,  and  it  is 
said  that  the  visible  deposits  are  large  enough  to  fully 

208 


supply  the  demand  of  the  world  for  many  decades  to 
come. 

It  is  only  recently  that  Americans  began  to  interest 
themselves  in  the  development  of  nitrate  properties. 
The  largest  American  activities  being  thus  far  the 
Dupont  Powder  Company,  which  has  acquired  several 
deposits  and  is  beginning  to  develop  them  systematic- 
ally. 

THE  NITRATE  TRUST 

Since  the  re-entry  early  in  1921  of  the  German  pro- 
ducers into  the  Nitrate  Producers  Association,  this 
organization  has  been  much  strengthened  and  it  now 
controls  98%  of  the  national  output. 

The  nationality  of  operating  companies  and  the  per- 
centages of  production  alloted  each  by  the  Association 
of  Nitrate  Producers  is  indicated  in  the  following  table: 

Nationality  Production  in  tons  % 

Chilean 60  1,435,607             50,21% 

British   43  1,028,238             35,96 

Spanish 3  51,681 

German 2  17,940 

Peruvian 7  77,291 

North  American 2  78,876 

Jugo-Slav 7  168,204 

Japanese 1  1,466 


Totals  125     2,859,203  100,00% 


Up  to  the  end  of  1918,  the  nitrate  industry  employed 
56,981  persons.  The  coal  consumed  amounted  to 
319,613  tons,  the  fuel  oil  445,890  tons. 

The  nitrate  bearing  material  lies  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  being  merely  covered  with  a  foot  or  so 
of  debris.  There  are  three  classes  of  material  bear- 
ing the  nitrate  of  soda.  The  first  and  most  important 
of  these  is  the  "caliche"  which  formerly  was  the  only 
one  exploited.  The  second,  called  "costra"  is  a  layer 
of  conglomerate  covering  the  caliche.  Mixed  up  with 
and  between  the  layers  of  costra  snd  caliche  are  pockets 
and  veins  of  earth  which  also  contain  varying  propor- 
tions of  nitrates.  The  layers  of  caliche  are  very  ir- 
regular. 

The  process  of  separating  the  nitrate  from  waste 
materials  is  quite  simple.  It  consists  in  the  main  in 
boiling  the  material  with  steam  and  crystalizing  at 
differentiated  temperatures  and  degrees  of  concen- 
tration of  the  brine,  whereby  the  different  minerals  in 
solution  in  the  brine  are  separated. 

On  the  first  discovery  of  the  value  of  Chile  nitrates 
as  a  fertilizer,  the  crude  material,  as  mined  in  Chile, 
was  spread  over  the  ground,  but  it  was  soon  found  more 
profitable  to  export  a  purer  mineral. 

During  and  since  the  War,  nitrate  interests  were 
alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  destructive  competition 
by  nitrates  obtained  from  the  air  in  Norway,  Switzer- 
land and  elsewhere.  This  has  led  to  more  economical 
methods  of  both  mining  and  refining,  in  which  the 

210 


Government  of  Chile  h&s  taken  an  active  interest. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Government  has  taken  effec- 
tive measures  to  prevent  irrational  exploitation. 

Potassium  nitrate  and  iodine  are  obtained  in  con- 
siderable quantities  as  a  by-product  of  the  sodium 
nitrate  industry. 

The  nitrate  producers  of  Chile  are  organized  in  an 
association  with  headquarters  in  Valparaiso,  for  the 
purpose  of  regualting  the  industry,  of  devising  better 
methods  of  production,  of  opening  new  markets  and 
systematizing  propaganda  abroad. 

Copper  leads  among  the  metals  mined  in  Chile, 
and  indeed,  the  two  largest  copper  plants  in  the  world 
as  concerns  the  quantity  of  ore  treated,  are  located 
in  that  country.  The  four  largest  copper  concerns  in 
Chile  are  American. 

COPPER  MINING  MAINLY  AMERICAN 

The  Chile  Exploration  Company,  operates  a  very 
large  plant  at  Chuquicamata  near  Calama,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Antofagasta-Bolivia  Railway.  It  is  70  miles 
from  the  Bolivian  border,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
10,000  feet.  The  mining  is  in  the  open,  power  shovels, 
both  steam  and  electric,  loading  cars  let  down  by 
gravity  to  the  plant  below.  The  ore,  containing  only 
from  2  to  3%  metallic  copper,  is  the  lowest  grade 
profitably  exploited  anywhere  in  the  world.However,  it 
is  self-leaching,  no  sulphuric  acid  being  needed  in  the 

211 


process  of  precipitating  the  metal.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  the  electric  power  plant  of  the  Company 
is  located  in  Tocopilla,  on  the  coast,  the  current  being 
carried  across  country  at  110,000  volts. 

The  Braden  Copper  Company,  operates  a  group  of 
mines  near  Sewell,  not  far  from  Rancagua,  south  of 
Santiago. 

A  third  American  copper  concern  is  the  Andes 
Copper  Mining  Company  interested  especially  in  de- 
posits east  of  Chanaral,  in  the  province  of  Atacama, 
and  a  fourth,  the  Santiago  Mining  Company,  capital- 
ized at  10  million  dollars,  operates  deposits  located  only 
10  miles  from  Santiago.  These  four  and  other  smaller 
American  concerns  are  all  said  to  be  affiliated  with  the 
Guggenheim  interests,  which  are  said  to  control  over 
two  thirds  of  the  Copper  production  in  Chile. 

STEEL  INDUSTRY  FAILED 

Chile  is  rich  in  iron  deposit.  In  1910,  the  Govern- 
ment gave  a  concession  to  a  French  Company  which 
established  a  smelter  at  Corral,  near  Valdivia  and  for 
a  time  it  was  hoped  that  Chile  would  become  one  of  the 
great  steel  manufacturing  countries  of  the  World. 
Two  blast  furnaces  were  constructed  at  a  cost  of  $3,- 
000,000,  and  a  railway  was  built  to  the  forests  donated 
by  the  government  as  a  source  of  fuel  supply.  The  wood 
was  feed  into  the  furnaces  at  the  plant  by  what  is 
known  as  the  Prudhomme  process.  This  method  works 

212 


the  deposits,  which  looked  very  promising  on  the  sur- 
face, proved  to  be  only  of  low  depth  and  they  soon  gave 
out  entirely.  Nevertheless,  before  operations  ceased, 
two  years  later,  sufficient  ore  was  obtained  to  pay  back 
a  large  part  of  the  original  investment. 

Silver  mining  is  not  carried  on  a  large  scale.  Most 
of  the  silver  produced  is  a  by-product  of  copper 
smelting. 

The  sulphur  mir.irg  industry  of  Chile  dates  back 
to  the  early  days  of  nitrate  workings,  to  the  forties  of 
the  last  century  and  for  many  years  all  the  sulphur  re- 
quired in  the  manufacture  of  blasting  powder  needed 
to  break  up  the  nitrate  ground  was  supplied  by  native 
deposits. 

Most  of  the  sulphur  of  Chile  is  found  east  of  the 
nitrate  belt,  but  usually  at  much  higher  altitudes, 
often  16  to  17,000  feet.  The  principal  mine  is  the 
Buenaventura,  near  Ollague,  on  the  Antofagasta  and 
Bolivia  Railway  line,  at  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet. 
Second  in  importance  is  that  of  Tacora,  near  the  Arica- 
Lapaz  Railroad,  at  13,500  feet  altitude.  The  total 
total  annual  production  is  less  than  15,000  tons.  Dis- 
tance of  many  deposits  from  means  of  communications 
prevents  their  successful  exploitation. 

The  largest  borax  deposits  in  the  world  are  the 
famous  borax  lake  of  Ascotan,  on  the  Antofagasta  and 

215 


ever,  the  domestic  production  does  not  nearly  cover 
the  demand.  Cheap  coal  imports  into  Chile  are  facili- 
tated by  the  fact  that  vessels  coming  to  the  north 
coast  to  get  nitrate  usually  take  on  the  outward  voyage 
a  cargo  of  coal  as  ballast.  Chilean  coal  mining  in- 
terests have  often  urged  the  imposition  of  a  heavy  duty 
upon  imported  coal. 

The  coal  fields  of  Chile  are  mainly  located  in  the 
south  central  and  southern  sections  of  the  country. 
The  largest  and  these  under  the  most  intensive  ex- 
ploitation are  in  the  vicinity  of  Conception.  Other 
deposits  are  found  in  the  island  of  Chiloe  and  as  far 
south  as  Punta  Arenas.  A  feature  of  Chile's  known 
coal  deposits  is  that  they  are  all  near  the  coast  and  of 
available  means  of  communication. 

The  majority  of  the  coal  companies  are  concerns 
financed  entirely  locally. 

Gold  has  been  mined  in  Chile  since  prehistoric 
times,  and  there  are  now  over  3000  registered  gold 
mining  claims  located  from  the  northernmost  prov- 
ince to  as  far  south  as  the  Tierra  del  Fuego.  However, 
the  total  quantity  mined  is  comparatively  small. 

In  1911  what  was  believed  to  be  a  great  find  was 
opened  at  Paru,  near  Constitution,  south  of  Santiago. 
A  company  obtained  the  concession  of  that  mine  and 
the  prospects  were  so  good  that  a  wild  rush  took  place 
for  the  purchase  of  its  stock.  Some  shares  are  said  to 
have  changed  hands  with  a  220%  advance.  However, 

214 


well  with  wood  containing  less  than  25%  moisture 
while  newly  cut  wood  of  the  region  was  found  to  con- 
tain over  50%  moisture.  Months  of  drying  proved  in- 
sufficient to  reduce  that  percentage  sufficiently  low. 
Moreover,  the  wood  was  found  too  low  in  caloric  power. 
Operation  having  proved  unrenumerative,  the  plant 
was  closed  in  1911. 

Another  large  iron  concession,  also  organized  by  the 
French,  the  Societe  des  Hauts  Fournaux,  Forges  et 
Acieries  du  Chile,  at  Tofo.  near  the  port  of  Cruz  Grande, 
30  miles  north  of  Coquimbo,  also  proved  a  failure. 
The  deposits  consist  of  two  peaks  about  3000  feet  high, 
called  Cerro  Norte  and  Cerro  Sur,  located  only  8  kilo- 
metres inland,  which  have  been  found  to  consist  al- 
most entirely  of  ore  containing  68  to  70%  metallic 
iron,  with  only  Yi%  phosphorus. 

During  the  war  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.  obtained 
a  90  years  lease  on  the  property,  and  it  has  since  spent 
large  sums  in  making  the  mine  ready  for  operation 
and  in  creating  a  commodious  port  with  modern  load- 
ing facilities  at  Cruz  Grande.  However,  thus  far, 
operation  has  been  only  on  a  very  small  scale. 

There  are  many  other  known  iron  deposits,  mainly 
in  the  northern  desert  but  none  is  as  important  nor  as 
accessible  as  the  two  just  mentioned. 

COAL   MINING  PROMISING 

Chile  is  the  only  SouthAmerican  country  where  coal 
is  mined  commercially  in  appreciable  quantities.  How- 

213 


Bolivia  Railways  Line,  at  12,200  feet  altitude.  The 
lake  is  24  miles  long,  of  varying  width  and  covered 
with  a  crust  of  borax  of  an  average  of  8  feet  thickness, 
the  deposits  are  controlled  by  the  Borax  Consolidated, 
Ltd.  of  London. 

Salt  deposits  abound  in  Chile,  but  of  400  mining 
claims  only  a  dozen  or  so  are  worked  sufficiently  to 
cover  the  domestic  demand. 

Petroleum  has  been  located  in  various  sections  of 
Chile  but  only  in  a  very  few  cases  has  theexploitability 
of  the  fields  been  demonstrated.  The  most  promising 
areas  are  those  near  Punta  Arenas  and  on  the  island  of 
Chiloe.  Characteristic  of  the  oil  situation  in  Chile  is 
that,  during  the  last  few  years,  the  number  of  regist- 
ered claims  has  decreased  by  almost  a  thousand. 


216 


CHAPTER  XIII 


TOPOGRAPHY 

Although  having  no  frontage  on  the  Pacific,  Bolivia 
is  counted  as  one  to  the  Western  Countries.  More- 
over, a  considerable  proportion  of  the  passenger  and 
freight  traffic  along  the  West  Coast  is  to  and  from 
Bolivia.  Hence  a  monography  of  that  country  has 
been  included  in  this  volume. 

Bolivia  is  the  third  largest  South  American  country, 
ranking  after  Brazil  and  Argentina.  Its  area  is  1,834, 
225  square  kilometres  (708,195  sq.  m,).  In  area  it  is 
ten  times  larger  than  the  State  of  Illinois,  but  in  popula- 
tion it  is  less  than  Chicago,  namely  2,505,536  (Cen- 
sus 1914).  It  is  the  most  sparsely  settled  South 
American  country  with  3.2  inhabitants  to  the  square 
mile,  compared  with  23.2  in  the  United  States. 

The  most  notable  topographical  feature  of  Bolivia 
is  the  Altiplano,  the  great  Central  Plateau  of  40,000 
sq.  m.  area,  which  extends  for  500  miles  at  an  average 
altitude  of  12,000  feet  between  the  two  main  Andean 
chains  which  traverse  the  country  north  and  south. 

217 


which  put  an  end  to  the  hostilities  between  the  fol- 
lowers of  Pizzaro  and  those  of  Almagro.  Later,  it  was 
given  its  present  full  name,  La  Paz  de  Ayacucho,  in 
commemoration  of  the  great  battle  of  Ayacucho  during 
the  Wars  against  Spain,  which  sealed  the  independence 
cf  West  Coast  Countries. 

The  situation  of  La  Paz  is  peculiar — deep  in  a  sud- 
den, curious  depression  of  the  tableland  above,  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Chuquiapu.  The  narrow,  quaint 
streets,  thronged  with  Indian  men  and  women  dressed 
in  variagated  colors,  either  bending  under  heavy  loads 
or  leading  flocks  of  black,  white  or  reddish  colored 
llamas.  Cholo  women,  with  their  white  hats  looking 
like  glazed  Panamas,  and  their  immaculately  white, 
heavily  starched  garb,  with  a  sprinkling  of  nuns  and 
monks,  of  modern  men  in  silk  hat  and  of  smart  soldiers 
wearing  German-cut  uniforms  the  whole  dotted  with 
numerous  beautiful  public  squares  and  gardens,  is  a 
sight  which,  in  its  variety,  can  hardly  be  surpassed 
in  the  world. 

The  neighborhood  of  La  Paz  presents  quite  as  great 
a  variety  of  view.  The  awe  inspiring  Illimani,  21,000 
feet  high,  is  near.  A  thousand  feet  below,  but  only 
four  miles  away  are  the  gorges  of  Obraje  which  in  the 
curious  shape  of  the  rocks  and  in  colorfulness  rival 
Yosemite  Valley.  Near  La  Paz  are,  almost  side  by 
side,  airidity  and  barrenness,  and  intense  agriculture. 
Near  lake  Titicaca  the  famous  ruins  of  Tiahuanaco. 

La  Paz  has  a  population  of  86,743.     It  is  the  most 
220 


65  at  its  widest  covering  an  area  of  5187  miles  at  an 
altitude  of  12,545  feet,  about  equally  divided  between 
Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Territory.  The  Southern  Rail- 
ways of  Peru,  a  Peruvian  Corporation  subsidiary  .main- 
tain a  steamer  service,  a  1100  ton  vessel,  the  Inca, 
serves  as  connecting  link  between  the  Peruvian  and 
Bolivian  Railways,  smaller  steamers  providing  service 
around  the  Lake. 

Besides  Bolivia,  only  Paraguay,  among  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Western  Hemisphere  has  no  Ocean  front. 
Antofagasta,  and  the  adjacent  coast  having  been  ceded 
to  Chile  after  the  war  of  1878.  Three  Pacific  outlets 
are  available  to  Bolivia,  namely  at  Mollendo,  Arica 
and  Antofagasta.  There  are  two  main  outlets  via  the 
Amazon,  namely  the  Beni  and  the  Mamore  River, 
an  American  built  railroad  connecting  the  Mamore 
River  with  Porto  Velho,  Brazil,  where  the  Madera 
River  becomes  navigable.  The  southeastern  terri- 
tories find  their  outlet  via  Argentina,  in  part  by  an 
as  yet  incomplete  railroad  line  from  Uyuni,  Bolivia, 
to  Salta,  Argentina. 

BOLIVIAN  CITIES 

La  Paz  is  considered  the  Capital  of  Bolivia,  the 
President  and  the  Government  being  established  there. 
However,  the  constitutional  Capital  is  at  Sucre. 

La  Paz  was  founded  in  Conquistadores  times  and 
called  thus  (The  Peace)  in  honor  of  an  agreement 

219 


Three  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere, the  Volcanoes  Illimani,  Illampu  and  Sajama 
are  on  Bolivian  territory. 

Bolivia  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct  zones. 
The  Altiplano  just  named,  with  the  Cordillera  framing 
it,  is  the  smaller  of  these  three  zones,  but  that  most 
highly  developed,  most  thickly  populated  and  that 
where  all  important  cities  are  located. 

The  second  zone,  that  of  the  Amazon,  is  the  largest 
and  probably  better  known  and  a  little  more  de- 
veloped that  the  similar  zone  of  Peru.  The  third 
zone,  the  southeast  territories  of  Santa  Cruz,  Chu- 
quisaca  and  Tarija,  ending  in  a  triangle  which  borders 
Brazil,  Paraguay  and  Argentine  is  probably  the  most 
fertile.  In  recent  years,  it  is  the  only  part  of  Bolivia 
which  has  received  an  appreciable  foreign  immigration, 
mostly  Italians  coming  via  Argentina. 

Bolivia  has  a  large  net  of  navigable  rivers,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Itenes,  the  Beni,  and  the 
Mamore.  All  Bolivian  Rivers  flow  into  the  Amazon 
region,  except  one,  the  Desaguadero.  It  is  a  very 
remarkable  natural  canal,  improved  by  both  ancient 
Inca  and  modern  man,  connecting  Lake  Titicaca  with 
Lake  Aullaga,  also  called  Lake  Poopo,  which  subse- 
quently empties  into  the  Pilcomayo  and  finally  into 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  A  line  of  small  steamers  provides 
regular  services  on  the  Desaguadero. 

Lake  Titicaca,  the  largest,  highest  and  most  in- 
teresting lake  in  South  America  is  120  miles  long  and 


important  commercial  center  of  Bolivia  and  especially 
the  distributing  point  for  a  vast  surrounding  territory. 

Cochabamba  the  second  city  of  the  Republic  in 
population,  is  believed  by  many  to  have  the  greatest 
future  and  indeed,  in  spite  of  adverse  economic  con- 
ditions, it  has  begun  to  grow  appreciably  since  the 
opening  of  the  Railroad  from  Oruro.  It  is  located  in 
a  fine,  fertile  valley,  the  center  of  a  very  rich  country, 
drawing  its  trade  both  from  the  altiplano  and  the 
Amazon  region.  It  is  the  most  Old  Spanish  of  all 
Bolivian  cities  and  its  30,000  inhabitants  include  a 
number  of  old  patrician  families  very  proud  of  their 
ancestry. 

Potosi  is  one  of  the  highest  cities  in  the  World,  its 
altitude  being  4,466  metres  (13,661  feet). 

It  is  famous  for  the  richness  of  its  silver  mines,  having 
during  Spanish  Dominion,  produced  silver  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  three  thousand  six  hundred 
million  dollars.  The  city  was  founded  in  1545  and, 
fifty  years  later,  the  population  reached  160,000  in- 
habitants. There  are  still  in  use  some  of  the  big  dams 
and  aqueducts  which  the  Spaniards  constructed  to 
supply  the  city  with  water.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing buildings  is  the  mint,  constructed  in  1773  at  a 
cost  of  $1,100,000. 

Potosi  is  on  a  branch  Railroad  of  the  Bolivian  Rail- 
ways. 

221 


Sucre,  a  city  of  nearly  30,000  inhabitants,  is  the 
nominal  Capital  of  Bolivia,  but  the  only  important 
Federal  institution  established  there  is  the  Supreme 
Court.  It  is  an  old  fashioned  town,  mixed  with  modern 
mining  and  manufacturing  in  a  small  way.  A  railroad 
is  being  built  from  Potosi  which  will  not  only  increase 
the  importance  of  Sucre,  but  help  the  development  of 
thedepartment  of  Chuquisaca,  and  also  of  the  south- 
east provinces. 

Oruro  is,  next  to  La  Paz,  the  most  important  rail- 
road center  of  Bolivia.  It  is,  moreover,  the  trading 
center  for  the  largest  tin  mines  of  the  country  and  the 
home  town  of  the  wealthiest  Bolivian,  who,  however, 
resides  in  Paris. 

Trinidad,  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Mamore 
River,  is  the  capital  of  the  Beni  and  the  center  of  an 
empire  in  being  and  in  miniature.  There,  in  the  midst 
of  almost  wilderness,  three  weeks  from  anywhere  is 
lost  an  appreciable  white  population — some  old  Spanish 
descent,  and  some  new  immigration — in  the  midst  of 
a  purely  Indian  population  and  an  almost  virgin 
country. 

Santa  Cruz,  in  the  southeast,  is  bscoming  an 
important  oil  town.  Tupiza  has  gained  much  since 
the  partial  opening  of  the  Buenos  Ayres  La  Pas  Rail- 
road. 

222 


THE  PEOPLE 

Of  the  population  of  2,550,538  estimated  by  the 
1914  census,  two-thirds  are  given  as  Indians,  half  a 
million  as  Cholos — or  of  mixed  blood,  and  about 
quarter  of  a  million  as  whites,  among  them  some  7000 
foreigners. 

However,  in  Bolivia,  as  in  several  other  Latin 
American  countries,  "white"  indicates  a  class  distinc- 
tion rather  than  one  of  race.  Except  in  the  Amazon 
region  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  southeastern  ter- 
ritories, the  Indians  are  mostly  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits  or  working  the  mines,  while  the  Cholos  are 
artisans  and  small  shopkeepers. 

The  whites,  the  Cholos  and  the  Indians  have  no 
social  relations  with  one  another  and  the  two  main 
races  of  Indians,  the  Quetchuas  and  the  Aymaraes  are 
rarely  on  speaking  terms. 

Spanish  is  the  official  language  of  the  country  and 
that  of  the  educated  portion  of  the  people,  but  both 
the  Indians  and  the  Cholos  prefer  their  own  languages 
and  many  do  not  understand  anything  else.  The 
Spaniards  had  no  difficulties  in  conquering  the  Indians 
and  to  force  them  to  work,  and  even  to  accept  the  forms 
of  the  catholic  religion,  but  four  centuries  have  not 
sufficed  to  force  the  Indian  to  accept  the  Spanish 
speech.  Even  the  Indians  who  have  attended  school 
forget  the  Spanish  they  have  learned  a  year  or  two 
afterwards. 

223 


The  Bolivian  Indian,  as  a  whole,  has  little  or  no 
political  pDwer  and  does  not  care  for  any.  For  as  long 
as  the  Government  leaves  him  alone  and  does  not 
burden  him  with  taxation,  he  does  not  care  who's  who 
in  the  Government  Palaces.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
Quechua  Indian  rarely  refers  to  himself  as  a  Bolivian 
he  is  above  all  a  Quechua,  while  the  Aymara  never 
admits  being  Bolivian. 

The  environments  naturally  have  deeply  influenced 
the  racial  characteristics  of  the  Bolivian  Indian.  The 
effect  of  the  gloomy  aspect  of  the  altiplano  and  of  the 
mountains;  without  aesthetic  surroundings,  living  in 
dry  air  surcharged  with  electricity;  the  rare  oxygen, 
the  burning  noon  sun  and  the  very  cold  nights  all 
have  contributed  in  making  for  vigor  and  hardiness 
and  lead  to  stability  of  thought  process,  manifested  in 
the  highest  type  of  intellect,  when  it  has  an  opportunity 
to  develop  itself. 


AGRICULTURE 

Bolivia  does  not  export  any  of  the  cultivated  products 
of  the  soil.  Its  high  plateau  produces  barely  enough 
to  support  the  few  wants  of  its  population,  and  the 
Eastern  territories  and  provinces  are,  as  yet,  not  de- 
veloped agriculturally. 

The  only  agricultural  exports  are  confined  to  some 
of  the  products  of  the  vast  forests  of  the  Amazon 

224 


region — mainly  rubber  and  medicinal  plants — with 
some  wool,  hides  and  skins  from  the  Altiplano. 

Rubber  is  next  to  tin  the  most  important  item  of 
Bolivia's  foreign  trade.  Its  production,  in  recent  years 
having  far  exceeded  $6,000,000  annually.  It  is  the 
chief  product  of  the  department  of  Colonias  in  the 
extreme  north  and  of  that  of  Beni.  Bolivian  rubber 
is  said  to  be  the  highest  grade  obtained  in  South 
America,  but  as  it  is  exported  almost  exclusively  via 
the  Amazon,  it  is  generaly  known  as  Para  rubber. 
The  principal  rubber  shipping  point  is  Riberalta,  from 
which  it  is  a  three  to  five  weeks  trip  to  Para,  with 
various  transbording  of  the  rubber.  The  exploitation 
of  rubber  lands  is  regulated  by  law,  the  bleeding  being 
restricted  to  two  and  six  bleedings,  respectively,  ac- 
cording to  variety,  to  be  followed  by  similar  periods 
of  rest. 

The  Bolivian  rubber  laws  are  said  to  be  better  en- 
forced than  those  of  neighboring  States. 

The  Departments  of  Cochabamba,  and  Chuquisaca 
are  the  chief  agricultural  sections  of  Bolivia,  and  their 
soil  is  very  fertile  and  the  climate  favorable  to  the 
production  of  grain  and  vegetables.  In  Cochabamba, 
coffee  and  cocoa  are  produced  besides  cereals,  in  Chu- 
quisaca considerable  quantities  of  rice.  Several  de- 
partments produce  potatoes  which  are  dried  and  called 
"chuno"  and  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  wheat 
flour. 

225 


The  Eastern  Provinces  are  susceptible  of  producing 
all  or  most  tropical  crops,  but  are  awaiting  immigration 
and  better  means  of  transportation. 

On  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  and  in  the  near-by 
valleys  are  located  some  of  the  finest  grazing  lands  of 
South  America.  Where  cattle  raising  has  been  tried, 
it  has  proven  successful,  while  this  part  of  Bolivia  is 
better  adapted  for  sheep  raising  than  Australia.  Land 
values  are  very  low  and  labor  is  cheap  and  plentiful. 
The  quality  of  sheep  raised  there  is  low  and  agri- 
cultural methods  are  those  of  a  thousand  years  ago, 
but  modern  methods  adapted  to  local  conditions  would 
produce  big  returns. 

The  immigration  laws  of  Bolivia  are  very  liberal  and 
designed  to  attract  both  the  individual  immigrant  and 
the  capitalist  desirous  of  exploiting  the  agricultural 
possibilities  of  the  land  on  a  larger  scale.  Each  im- 
migrant can  obtain  50  hectars  (120  acres)  from  the 
Government  at  10  centavos  gold  (not  quite  4  cents 
American)  per  hectare.  Not  more  than  three  such 
lots  being  allowed  to  each  immigrant.  The  only  other 
requirement  is  that  the  lands  be  surveyed  at  the 
expense  of  the  immigrant  and  that  the  land  be  actually 
occupied  by  the  immigrant  or  his  agent.  Any  one  not 
an  immigrant  may  acquire  as  many  as  20,000  hectares 
of  Government  land  at  the  same  price,  provided  at 
least  one  family  be  settled  on  each  1000  hectare,  who 
actually  cultivate  parts  of  the  land. 


MINERAL  WEALTH 

"Bolivia  is  a  table  of  silver,  supported  by  columns  of 
gold,"  said  an  explorer,  Raimondi.  Not  only  is  Bolivia 
one  of  the  richest  countries,  but  more  than  any  other 
nation  in  the  world,  its  economic  life  is  based  upon 
the  development  of  its  mineral  resources.  During  the 
last  few  years  minerals  formed  from  82  to  88%  of  its 
total  exports. 

After  the  independence  of  Bolivia  had  been  achieved 
the  mining  industry  fell  into  a  state  of  decay,  from 
which  it  did  not  fully  emerge  until  a  few  years  ago. 
The  land  was  strewn  with  thousands  of  abandoned 
mines  and  workings,  and  such  development  as  was 
carried  on  was  handled  in  a  haphazard  way.  The 
construction  of  railways  into  the  Republic  and  the 
endeavors  of  a  thoroughly  enlightened  Government 
gradually  put  the  industry  on  a  firm  foundation,  and 
there  is  every  prospect  of  continued  progress. 

But  though  Bolivia  is  immensely  rich.  Develop- 
ment has  been  very  seriously  handicapped  by  various 
circumstances,  and  there  has  been  little  mining  done 
systematically  until  about  ten  years  ago. 

The  principal  of  these  handicaps  is  the  character  of 
the  country.  Many  of  the  richest  deposits  are  located 
three  miles  and  even  more  towards  the  sky,  far  away 
from  means  of  communications  and  habitations.  This 
not  only  increase  considerably  the  cost  of  opening  a 
mine,  but  as  well  of  shipping  the  mined  product.  Then 

227 


there  is  lack  of  water  and  of  fuel  and  in  many  places 
of  labor,  especially  of  native  mechanics. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  these  difficulties,  Bolivia  has  during 
the  war,  taken  second  rank  (coming  after  the  Malay 
States)  among  producers  of  tin.  The  tin  zone  in 
Bolivia  is  divided  into  four  districts — La  Paz  in  the 
north,  Oruro  in  the  center,  Chorolque  in  the  south, 
and  Potosi  in  the  east.  The  city  of  Oruro  is  the  tin 
metropolis  and  commerical  center  of  the  industry  The 
mining  country  is  much  in  the  Cordillera  Real  Range, 
and  the  lodes  are  found  at  altitudes  of  from  11,000  to 
16,000  feet,  the  height  of  one  in  the  Monte  Blanco 
mining  section,  where  the  offices  of  the  company  are, 
being  14,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

For  a  time,  Bolivia  stood  third  among  silver  pro- 
ducing countries  of  the  World,  and  the  metal  is  found 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  Republic.  The  silver  hills 
of  Potosi  and  Oruro  furnished  much  of  the  wealth 
which  the  Spanish  galleons  took  across  the  seas,  and 
fabulous  tales  have  been  told  of  the  amounts  of  the 
precious  metal  obtained  from  the  famous  Cerro  Rico 
of  Potosi,  which  is  said  to  have  reached  two  billion 
dollars  worth  of  silver. 

Already  before  the  War,  the  tungsten  deposits  of 
Bolivia  had  attracted  considerable  attention.  This 
ore  is  found  in  widely  scattered  areas,  but  most  of  the 
development  has  taken  place  in  the  Santa  Cruz  dis- 
trict and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Uyuni.  The  tungsten  mining  industry  of  Bolivia  has 

228 


suffered  more  than  any  other  from  the  effects  of  post- 
war conditions. 

The  Republic  occupies  a  prominent  place  among  the 
very  few  bismuth  producing  countries,  said  to  be 
three  in  all.  The  world  mining  of  this  metal  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  monopoly. 

It  is  said  that  the  Bolivian  copper  mines  produce 
a  higher  quality  of  ore  than  any  other  South  American 
country.  The  ore  of  the  Corbcoco  mines  are  said  to 
resemble  greatly  those  of  north  Michgan,  at  Calumet, 
Hecla  and  Copper  Range.  Unlike  in  Chile,  copper 
mining  in  Bolivia  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  British 
United  Copper,  Ltd. 

Antimony  was  extensively  mined  during  the  War, 
but  high  freights  have  caused  production  to  cease. 
Zinc  is  produced  on  a  small  scale.  Lead  is  present 
in  considerable  proportion,  but  too  far  from  means  of 
transportation  to  be  interesting.  Vast  Molybdenum 
deposits  are  known  to  exist  but  not  where  they  can  be 
profitably  exploited. 

From  1540  to  1750,  a  period  of  210  years,  the  gold 
mines  of  Bolivia  produced  $2,100,000,000.  From  1750 
to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  mines 
and  placers  situated  in  the  Provinces  of  Larecaja  and 
Caupolican  produced  $14,000,000  gold,  and  from  1818 

229 


to  1868  the  output  was  valued  at  about  $3,000,000. 
The  product  of  the  other  mines  and  placers  of  the 
nation,  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  is  estimated  at  $125,- 
000,000.  but  at  present  the  annual  production  of 
Bolivia  is  considerably  less  than  half  a  million  dollars 
worth. 

A  number  of  Bolivian  Rivers  carry  gold,  and  it  is 
not  an  uncommon  sight  to  see  natives,  after  the  high 
waters  of  certain  seasons  have  subsided,  scratching  in 
stream  beds  for  specks  of  gold,  which  they  frequently 
find. 

Deposits  in  which  gold  exists  are  found  in  three  dif- 
ferent regions  of  the  country,  all  of  which  are  vast  in 
extent.  One  of  these  belts  begins  in  the  Province  of 
Munecas  and  extends  eastward  toward  the  Paraguay; 
another  belt  lies  in  the  southwest  of  Tupiza  region; 
while  a  third  gold  area  is  known  as  the  Acre  section,  in 
northern  Bolivia. 

In  many  cases  the  virgin  country,  often  without 
roads  or  even  a  good  trail,  prevents  the  introduction 
of  modern  machinery,  without  which  in  this  age  few 
mining  enterprises  are  profitable. 

Coal  is  found  in  fair  quantities  near  Carabuco,  the 
strata  covering  the  hills  over  an  area  of  more  than  4 
miles.  Some  years  ago  an  American  company  secured 
a  concession  to  work  these  mines  and  invested  con- 


siderable  capital  in  the  enterprise.  Several  hundred 
tons  were  mined,  and  the  coal  was  experimented  with 
by  the  Peruvian  Corporation  in  its  steamers — with 
disastrous  results,  however,  it  being  found  that  the 
coal  was  intermixed  with  large  quantities  of  sulphur 
and  other  impurities. 

At  one  time,  considerable  impetus  also  was  given 
to  the  development  of  large  deposits  in  the  Copocabana 
Peninsula,  on  the  Bolivian  side  of  Lake  Titicaca,  and 
also  to  the  exploitation  of  two  veins  near  Cochabamba, 
but  the  total  production  of  the  country  is  negligible. 

VAST  OIL  DEPOSITS 

During  the  last  two  years,  vast  petroleum  fields  have 
been  determined  in  Southern  Bolivia,  and  they  promise 
to  be  very  interesting. 

The  Bolivian  fields  appear  to  be  a  continuation  of 
those  of  northern  Argentina  or,  as  locally  spoken  of, 
the  "sistema  de  Salta,"  and  the  deposits  follow  the 
eastern  Andean  foothills  for  many  miles,  possibly 
as  far  north  as  the  city  of  Santa  Cruz.  Bolivian 
and  other  engineers  and  geologists  within  the  last  few 
years  have  made  a  deep  study  of  the  petroleum  out- 
croppings,  not  ^nly  in  eastern  Bolivia  but  also  in  the 
Lake  Titicaca  region. 

At  one  time,  newspapers  reported  that  a  French 
Syndicate  had  been  formed  for  the  exploitation  of  the 
Bolivian  fields.  Later,  it  was  claimed  that  they  were 

231 


controlled  by  a  Chilean  Syndicate.  However,  in  1920, 
the  Bolivian  Government  decreed  a  petroleum  mono- 
poly. 

In  the  province  of  Santa  Cruz,  the  oil  yield  is  said 
to  be  of  a  quality  far  superior  to  that  found  in  any  other 
region;  owing  to  some  peculiar  geological  formation, 
the  oil  reaches  the  earth's  surface  so  clarified  that  with 
very  primitive  refining  process  it  is  used  by  the  natives 
for  illuminating  purposes,  and  there  are  instances  where 
it  was  burned  just  as  taken  from  the  filtration,  without 
being  in  the  slightest  degree  refined.  This  petroleum, 
burned  in  a  lamp  without  a  chimney  in  the  open  air, 
was  quite  devoid  of  odor. 

SOME  STRANGE  FUELS 

Owing  to  the  high  price  of  coal,  the  principal  fuel 
used  on  the  railroads  and  in  the  mining  industry  of  the 
Altiplano  is  "yareta,"  a  plant,  or  lichen  of  the  genus 
Azorella.  It  grows  on  the  rocky  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains up  to  16,000  feet  above  sea  level.  In  general 
shape  it  suggests  heads  of  coral  growing  upon  and  con- 
forming to  the  configuration  of  the  rocks.  Some  of 
the  masses  are  as  much  as  4  feet  in  diameter  and  1^ 
feet  thick.  After  being  detached  from  the  rocks  it  is 
piled  up  to  dry  for  a  short  time  before  being  used. 
On  account  of  a  large  amount  of  resinous  material  it 
burns  readily. 

Another  fuel,  used  not  only  by  the  Indians,  but  also 
232 


in  towns  for  cooking,  and  even  in  the  La  Paz  brewery 
is  Takia,  or  dried  llama  dung.  Still  another  fuel 
is  a  shrub  called  tola,  which  grows  about  a  metre  high 
and  covers  the  plains  in  many  points. 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION 

Although  Bolivia  has  no  coast  line,  its  interior  may  be 
nearly  as  easily  reached  by  rail  than  similarly  located 
parts  of  Peru.  Rail  connection  exists  with  three  Pacific 
ports,  Mollendo,  Arica  and  Antofagasta.  A  Railroad 
outlet  to  Argentina  and  Buenos  Ayres  is  nearly  com- 
pleted, while  the  Atlantic  Ocean  may  be  reached  via 
the  Mamore-Porto  Velho  Railway  and  the  Amazon. 

The  Arica-La  Paz  Railroad  is  the  shortest  route 
from  the  Pacific  to  La  Paz,  but,  for  various  reasons,  it 
has  had  to  contend  with  many  difficulties.  Its  equip- 
ment is  far  from  adequate  and  congestion  has  been 
chronic  almost  from  the  moment  of  its  opening.  •< 

The  line  is  281  miles  long,  28  miles  of  which  with 
center  rack  of  the  Abt  system,  slightly  over  half  of 
the  line  being  on  Bolivian  territory. 

The  up  trains  require  22  hours  to  La  Paz,  the  down 
trains  18  hours  to  Arica.  The  single  first-class  fare 
is  about  $15  American  gold. 

The  second  important  railroad  gate  of  Bolivia  is 
from  Mollendo,  via  Arequipa,  Pune,  Lake  Titicaca, 
and  Guaqui  to  La  Paz.  This  line  is  534  miles  long, 

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and  is  entirely  controlled  by  the  Southern  Railways 
£f  Peru,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Peruvian  Corporation. 

The  journey  includes  a  sail  across  the  Lake  Titicaca 
This  lake  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  3,931  metres 
(12,500  feet)  and  an  area  of  4000  square  miles,  or 
larger  than  all  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  put  together. 
In  many  places  the  depth  of  the  water  is  more  than 
1,000  feet.  Across  this  vast  extent  of  water,  passengers 
and  freight  are  carried  from  Puno  to  Guaqui  on  the 
Bolivian  side,  a  distance  of  110  miles,  by  powerful 
steamers  of  1,000  tons  register,  equipped  with  every 
provision  for  accommodation  and  comfort. 

A  daylight  trip  across  the  lake,  the  highest  navigable 
body  of  water  in  the  world,  is  one  which  should  be 
made,  if  possible  for  the  traveler  will  carry  away  with 
him  an  impression  never  to  be  forgotten. 

A  regular  line  of  steamers  is  maintained  from  Puno, 
Peru,  to  Guaqui,  Bolivia,  160  miles  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Lake.  From  Guaqui  a  60  miles  long  line,  6  of 
which  from  Alto  de  LaPaz  to  La  Paz,  1000  feet  below, 
is  electric. 

This  line  was  owned  by  the  Government,  but  was 
sold  to  the  Peruvian  Corporation  in  1910  to  provide 
funds  for  the  building  of  the  Potosi-Sucre  line. 

THE  BOLIVIAN  RAILWAYS 

The  Antofagasta  and  Bolivia  Railway  begins  at 
Antofagasta,  Chile,  and  runs  to  Ollague  on  the  frontier, 

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and  thence  to  Oruro,  where  connection  is  made  with 
the  Bolivian  Railway,  which  continues  on  to  Viacha, 
the  junction  point  with  the  Guaqui  85  La  Paz  Railway 
thus  forming  a  through  route  from  the  Pacific  to  the 
Bolivian  capital  a  total  distance  of  1,157  kilometres 
(719  miles).  A  change  is  required  to  be  made  on  the 
heights  above  La  Paz,  the  last  few  miles  of  the  line 
being  operated  by  electric  in  place  of  steam  power. 
This  whole  system  is  known  as  the  Antofagasta  & 
Bolivia  Railway,  and  it  runs  through  some  of  the  finest 
Andean  scenery  in  South  America.  The  main  line  is 
carried  to  a  height  of  13,000  feet  (about  4,000  metres) 
above  sea  level,  and  one  if  its  branch  lines,  the  Uyuni 
Huanchaca  Railway,  reaches  the  altitude  of  4819 
metres  or  15,809  feet,  or  only  a  few  feet  less  than  the 
highest  Peruvian  Railroad. 

The  Antofagasta  &  Bolivia  Railway  was  built  origi- 
nally to  provide  an  outlet  for  the  nitrate  properties  of 
the  Compania  Salitres  de  Antofagasta.  No  outlet 
existing  for  the  mineral  products  of  the  Huanchaca 
Mine,  located  at  Huanchaca,  near  Uyuni,  Bolivia,  the 
owners  of  the  mine  purchased  the  railway.  This  was 
in  1884.  The  line  was  completed  as  far  as  Uyuni  in  the 
year  1888.  In  1889  the  property  was  disposed  of  to 
the  present  company  for  approximately  $10,000,000. 
The  road  was  continued  to  Oruro  in  1892,  and  from  that 
time  began  an  expansion  of  earnings  and  profits.  To- 
day the  railway  is  one  of  the  best  managed  and  most 
profitable  in  South  America.  It  has  taken  over,  under 

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lease,  the  Bolivia  Railway,  and  now  presents  a  through 
route  between  La  Paz,  Potosi,  Oruro,  and  other  im- 
portant Bolivian  cities  and  the  Pacific  ports  of  Antofa- 
gasta  and  Mejillones. 

One  of  the  newer  Railroads  of  Bolivia  is  the  Oruro- 
Cochabamba  line,  which  opens  a  very  fertile  and 
minerally  rich  country.  It  is  expected  that  the  Potosi- 
Sucre  line  will  be  completed  in  1921  and  the  La  Paz 
Yungas  line  in  1922  or  the  following  year. 

A  TRANSANDEAN   LINE 

A  most  important  railroad  line,  also  nearing  com- 
pletion is  the  La  Quiaca-Tupiza  Railway,  funds  for 
which  were  largely  raised  by  means  of  a  loan  obtained 
in  France  in  1913,  and  for  which  contract  was  let  to 
the  Vesin  Syndicate,  in  Paris.  The  line,  200  kilometres, 
or  124  miles  long  will  connect  the  Bolivian  with  the 
Argentine  Railways  and  the  ride  from  La  Paz  to  Buenos 
Ayres  will  consume  only  four  days. 

THE  ONLY  LARGE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  CANALS 

The  Desaguadero,  between  Lake  Titicaca  and  Lake 
Poopo  is  a  wonderful  canal,  mostly  natural,  which 
needed  little  work  to  render  it  navigable. 

Another  Canal  is  projected  by  an  organization  of 
Italian,  Belgian,  and  Argentinian  capital  has  been 
formed  in  Nazareno,  Bolivia,  situated  on  the  slope  of 

236 


the  Tupiza  valley,  60  kilometres  from  La  Quiaca,  the 
object  of  which  is  the  construction  of  a  navigable 
irrigating  canal  connecting  Nazareno  and  Salta,  Argen- 
tina. The  canal  will  follow  the  Pilcomayo  and  Bermeja 
rivers  and  will  cost  several  millions  of  dollars  owing  to 
the  sinuous  route  it  must  traverse.  Nazareno  is  located 
in  one  of  the  wealthiest  agricultural  and  mining  sections 
of  Bolivia  with  three  large  companies,  exploiting  the 
lead  mines  of  the  vicinity. 

Most  of  the  Bolivian  towns  are  off  the  railroad. 
There  are  diligence  lines  connecting  the  larger  towns 
with  the  railroads,  but  most  of  these  are  in  operation 
for  only  eight  or  nine  months  of  the  year,  and  are 
mainly  for  passengers  only. 

The  transfer  of  freight  throughout  the  interior  of 
Bolivia  is  by  means  of  donkeys,  llamas,  mules,  and 
on  the  back  of  Indians. 


THE  CAMEL  OF  THE  ANDES 

The  llamas — the  camels  of  the  High  Andes — are 
about  4  feet  6  inches  high,  carry  about  100  pounds, 
and  travel  at  a  slow  pace,  rarely  making  over  10 
miles  a  day.  The  Indians  never  ride  them,  in  fact  the 
animal  is  too  weak  to  carry  a  man.  Though  so  weak 
and  so  slow  in  their  movements  they  are  valuable 
beasts  of  burden,  as  they  are  not  affected  by  the  highest 
altitudes  and  require  no  attention,  feeding  on  the  short 

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tufts  and  brushwood  to  be  found  on  the  hillsides.  The 
Indian  himself  can  carry  heavy  loads.  He  always 
carries  everything  on  his  back,  never  on  his  head  or  in 
his  hands.  It  is  curious  to  see  him  loading.  He  kneels 
with  his  back  to  the  bale  throws  around  it  two  or  three 
coils  of  a  rope  which  he  knots  across  his  chest,  and  then, 
bending  over  on  his  face,  he  staggers  to  his  feet  and 
moves  off  with  a  load  that  two  men  can  hardly  lift 
from  the  ground  with  their  hands. 


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